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Bianco F, Castelli I. The promotion of mature theory of mind skills in educational settings: a mini-review. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1197328. [PMID: 37333607 PMCID: PMC10273267 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1197328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
After formal school entry, theory of mind development encounters a blooming period of growth intertwined with social and academic achievements and challenges. Within this framework, in last years researchers have proposed training programs to foster mature ToM skills, but also, to test causal pathways for the role that ToM development may have in broader cognitive and social outcomes. In the current mini-review we examine which training programs have been developed so far to enhance three key aspects of mature ToM skills: second-order false belief reasoning, the ability to put one's own ToM knowledge into use, and the mentalization of thoughts and emotions. We also illustrate effects of these activities on intra- and inter- personal competence. In its conclusion the paper provides considerations of both first achievements of research in this area and gaps to be addressed in future works.
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Hasegawa M. Preschoolers' and Third Graders' Understanding of the Causal Relations of Emotions and Behaviors in Moral Situations. JAPANESE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jpr.12323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Lombardi E, Valle A, Bianco F, Castelli I, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Supporting mentalizing in primary school children: the effects of thoughts in mind project for children (TiM-C) on metacognition, emotion regulation and theory of mind. Cogn Emot 2022; 36:975-986. [PMID: 35452349 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2022.2067521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Mentalization is a useful ability for social functioning and a crucial aspect of mentalizing is emotion regulation. Literature suggests programmes for children and adults to increase mentalizing abilities useful both for emotional and social competences. For this reason, the issue of how to prompt children's mentalization has started to attract researchers' attention, supporting the importance of the interpersonal dimension for the individual differences in the developmental of mentalization. The TiM (Thoughts in Mind) Project, a training programme based on the explanation of mentalization mechanisms and designed for adults, deals with emotion regulation. Starting from the TiM Project, this study tests the effects of the TiM Child (TiM-C) training programme, over a control training programme, a conversational training designed for the school context, in children attending Year 2 of primary school. We designed a training based on narratives, followed by multiple-choice questions and conversations about mental states. Our results revealed significant improvements over the training period only in the TiM-C Project group for Metacognition, Emotion Regulation Strategies and a Theory of Mind task. As far as the educational implications, our findings suggest that it is possible to enhance mentalization through activities at school by promoting not only the understanding of the relations between mind and emotion, but also metacognitive skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Lombardi
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Annalisa Valle
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Bianco
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Ilaria Castelli
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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Boseovski JJ. Traits or Circumstances? Children's Explanations of Positive and Negative Behavioral Outcomes. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021; 58. [PMID: 33776203 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the extent to which children rely on traits to explain behavior. One hundred twenty-eight 4- to 7-year-olds were told stories about actors' behaviors that led to positive or negative outcomes. Outcomes could be explained with reference to positive or negative traits (niceness or meanness) or transient or irrelevant situational characteristics (such as emotions, biological states, and social categories). Generally, findings indicated that the majority of children referred to traits to explain behaviors and this tendency increased with age. Among non-trait explanations, emotions were used prominently at all ages to explain negative behavior. Older children in particular discounted traits as an explanation for negative outcomes when alternate explanations such as negative emotions were available. Latent Class Analyses captured individual difference attributional profiles among children: although most children were trait theorists, some children referred consistently to non-trait or situational explanations. Two other profiles reflected positivity and negativity biases in children's explanations. These findings contribute to our knowledge about the relative influence of trait and non-trait explanations for positive and negative behavioral outcomes; we also present the first evidence for profiles of personality attribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet J Boseovski
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Candace Lapan, Wingate University
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Rivas-Garcia S, Bateman A, Caracuel A. Validation of the ToMas-child Scale for the Assessment of the Theory of Mind in a Group of Spanish Speaking Children Aged 3 to 7 Years from Spain. Dev Neuropsychol 2020; 45:232-245. [PMID: 32419516 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2020.1764567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the Theory of Mind assessment scale in children (ToMas-child). Two hundred and fifty-two Spanish children from 3 to 7 years were assessed in school settings. Rasch analysis showed the ToMas-child is a unidimensional scale valid for the assessment of the main components of the ToM in children. Data of hierarchical distribution of six items (seven tasks) are discussed as milestones in the latent construct of ToM development in childhood, and construct validity of the scale is examined. A reliability index of PSI = 0.7 indicated the usefulness of the scale as a screening tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Rivas-Garcia
- Mind, Brain and Behaviour Research center-CIMCYC , Granada, Spain.,Developmental and Educational Psychology department, University of Granada , Granada, Spain
| | - Andrew Bateman
- School of Health and Social Care, University of Essex , Colchester, UK.,School of Health and Social Care, NIHR Research Design Service. East of England , Colchester, UK
| | - Alfonso Caracuel
- Mind, Brain and Behaviour Research center-CIMCYC , Granada, Spain.,Developmental and Educational Psychology department, University of Granada , Granada, Spain
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Lecce S, Bianco F. Working memory predicts changes in children’s theory of mind during middle childhood: A training study. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Lecce S, Bianco F, Devine RT, Hughes C. Relations between theory of mind and executive function in middle childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 163:69-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Pesowski ML, Friedman O. Preschoolers use emotional reactions to infer relations: The case of ownership. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Lagattuta KH, Elrod NM, Kramer HJ. How do thoughts, emotions, and decisions align? A new way to examine theory of mind during middle childhood and beyond. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 149:116-133. [PMID: 27017060 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The current study examined 4- to 10-year-olds' and adults' (N=280) tendency to connect people's thoughts, emotions, and decisions into valence-matched mental state triads (thought valence=emotion valence=decision valence; e.g., anticipate something bad+feel worried+avoid) and valence-matched mental state dyads (thought-emotion, thought-decision, and emotion-decision). Participants heard vignettes about focal characters who re-encountered individuals who had previously harmed them twice, helped them twice, or both harmed and helped them. Baseline trials involved no past experience. Children and adults predicted the focal characters' thoughts (anticipate something good or bad), emotions (feel happy or worried), and decisions (go near or stay away). Results showed significant increases between 4 and 10years of age in the formation of valence-matched mental state triads and dyads, with thoughts and emotions most often aligned by valence. We also documented age-related improvement in awareness that uncertain situations elicit less valence-consistent mental states than more certain situations, with females expecting weaker coherence among characters' thoughts, emotions, and decisions than males. Controlling for age and sex, individuals with stronger executive function (working memory and inhibitory control) predicted more valence-aligned mental states. These findings add to the emerging literature on development and individual differences in children's reasoning about mental states and emotions during middle childhood and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Noel M Elrod
- Department of Psychology and Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis
| | - Hannah J Kramer
- Department of Psychology and Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis
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Children Reading to Dogs: A Systematic Review of the Literature. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149759. [PMID: 26901412 PMCID: PMC4763282 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Despite growing interest in the value of human-animal interactions (HAI) to human mental and physical health the quality of the evidence on which postulated benefits from animals to human psychological health are based is often unclear. To date there exist no systematic reviews on the effects of HAI in educational settings specifically focussing on the perceived benefits to children of reading to dogs. With rising popularity and implementation of these programmes in schools, it is essential that the evidence base exploring the pedagogic value of these initiatives is well documented. Methods Using PRISMA guidelines we systematically investigated the literature reporting the pedagogic effects of reading to dogs. Because research in this area is in the early stages of scientific enquiry we adopted broad inclusion criteria, accepting all reports which discussed measurable effects related to the topic that were written in English. Multiple online databases were searched during January-March 2015; grey literature searches were also conducted. The search results which met the inclusion criteria were evaluated, and discussed, in relation to the Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine levels of evidence; 27 papers were classified as Level 5, 13 as Level 4, 7 as Level 2c and 1 as Level 2b. Conclusion The evidence suggests that reading to a dog may have a beneficial effect on a number of behavioural processes which contribute to a positive effect on the environment in which reading is practiced, leading to improved reading performance. However, the evidence base on which these inferences are made is of low quality. There is a clear need for the use of higher quality research methodologies and the inclusion of appropriate controls in order to draw causal inferences on whether or how reading to dogs may benefit children’s reading practices. The mechanisms for any effect remain a matter of conjecture.
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Beyond Sally's missing marble: further development in children's understanding of mind and emotion in middle childhood. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2015; 48:185-217. [PMID: 25735945 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2014.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Research on the development of theory of mind (ToM), the understanding of people in relation to mental states and emotions, has been a vibrant area of cognitive development research. Because the dominant focus has been addressing when children acquire a ToM, researchers have concentrated their efforts on studying the emergence of psychological understanding during infancy and early childhood. Here, the benchmark test has been the false-belief task, the awareness that the mind can misrepresent reality. While understanding false belief is a critical milestone achieved by the age of 4 or 5, children make further advances in their knowledge about mental states and emotions during middle childhood and beyond. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of children's sociocognitive abilities in older age groups is necessary to understand more fully the course of ToM development. The aim of this review is to outline continued development in ToM during middle childhood. In particular, we focus on children's understanding of interpretation-that different minds can construct different interpretations of the same reality. Additionally, we consider children's growing understanding of how mental states (thoughts, emotions, decisions) derive from personal experiences, cohere across time, and interconnect (e.g., thoughts shape emotions). We close with a discussion of the surprising paucity of studies investigating individual differences in ToM beyond age 6. Our hope is that this chapter will invigorate empirical interest in moving the pendulum toward the opposite research direction-toward exploring strengths, limitations, variability, and persistent errors in developing theories of mind across the life span.
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Scrimin S, Mason L, Moscardino U. School-related stress and cognitive performance: A mood-induction study. CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Lagattuta KH. Linking Past, Present, and Future: Children's Ability to Connect Mental States and Emotions Across Time. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Galván M, Uauy R, López-Rodríguez G, Kain J. Association between childhood obesity, cognitive development, physical fitness and social-emotional wellbeing in a transitional economy. Ann Hum Biol 2013; 41:99-104. [PMID: 24116969 DOI: 10.3109/03014460.2013.841288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been suggested that obese children have lower cognitive function, demonstrate poorer physical performance and are more susceptible to social-emotional problems. AIMS To describe associations between human physical growth, cognitive development, physical fitness and social-emotional characteristics of obese and non-obese children and to verify the predictors of intellectual coefficient by socioeconomic status (SES). SUBJECTS AND METHODS A sample of 107 non-obese (N-Ob) children [-1 z-score body mass index (BMI) ≤1 z-score] and 108 obese (Ob) children [2 z-score ≤BMI ≤5 z-score] from a larger cohort was evaluated. Intellectual coefficient (IQ), social-emotional wellbeing (SEW), 6-minute walk test (6MWT) and SES (mid-low, low and very low) were assessed. RESULTS Ob children were taller, heavier and present more height for age and BMI than N-Ob children (p < 0.001). A significant correlation between IQ and SEW (r = 0.14), 6MWT and BMI z-score (r = -0.18) and 6MWT and SEW (r = 0.15) was found. Multiple regression analysis revealed that BMI z-score had a negative impact on IQ in the mid-low SES sub-group and that SEW had a positive effect on IQ in the very-low SES sub-group. CONCLUSIONS In Chilean pre-school children from low-income families cognitive ability varied according to SES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Galván
- Institute of Health Sciences (ICSA), U. Autónoma de Hidalgo , Pachuca , México
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Bosacki SL. Theory of mind understanding and conversational patterns in middle childhood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 2013; 174:170-91. [PMID: 23534195 DOI: 10.1080/00221325.2012.659233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The author investigated the longitudinal relations between theory of mind (ToM) understanding and perceptions of self and social conversations in 17 school-aged children (12 girls, 5 boys, age 8-12 years). ToM was assessed at Time 1 (T1; M age = 8 years 5 months, SD = 8.7 months, and perceptions of self and conversational experiences assessed two years later at Time 2 (T2; M age = 10 years 4 months, SD = 7.9 months. Most importantly, longitudinal findings showed that children who scored relatively high on ToM at T1 reported relatively lower perceptions of self-worth and higher number of mental states verbs in their perceptions of peer and family conversations at T2. Significant negative longitudinal associations were found between children's number of siblings and their perceptions of self-worth (T1) and number of cognitive terms in their perceptions of peer and family conversations (T2). Frequency analysis suggested that girls' perceptions of conversations referred to more social and psychological aspects of self and relationships, whereas boys focused mainly on physical activities. Most children were more likely to prefer listening to talking during social conversations. The majority of children reported feelings of mixed or ambiguous emotions during experiences of silence. Implications for socioemotional and cognitive development in early adolescents are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Leanne Bosacki
- Brock University, Department of Graduate and Undergraduate Studies, Faculty of Education, 500 Glenridge Avenue, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada.
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Lagattuta KH, Sayfan L, Bamford C. Do you know how I feel? Parents underestimate worry and overestimate optimism compared to child self-report. J Exp Child Psychol 2012; 113:211-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Revised: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 04/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Determinants of Cognitive Development of Low SES Children in Chile: A Post-transitional Country with Rising Childhood Obesity Rates. Matern Child Health J 2012; 17:1243-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s10995-012-1121-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Mills CM, Al-Jabari RM, Archacki MA. Why do People Disagree? Explaining and Endorsing the Possibility of Partiality in Judgments. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2010.547236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Bamford C, Lagattuta KH. Looking on the Bright Side: Children’s Knowledge About the Benefits of Positive Versus Negative Thinking. Child Dev 2011; 83:667-82. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01706.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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