Attenuating the Link Between Threatened Egotism and Aggression

Sadism and Personality Disorders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Sadistic pleasure-the enjoyment of harm-infliction to others-can have devastating interpersonal and societal consequences. The goal of the current review is to illuminate the nomological net of traits related to sadism. We aim to achieve an understanding of the current empirical status on the link between sadism and personality disorders, psychopathy, the Dark Triad, and basic personality traits in clinical and community-based samples.

RECENT FINDINGS

The field is dominated by self-report studies on the Dark Triad with convenience samples. The link with DSM personality disorders has hardly been empirically studied. Existing evidence shows that sadism is most strongly related to increased psychopathic personality traits. Sadism can originate both from the interpersonal, affective, and behavioural basis of dark personality traits. There are diverging ideas on the differential status between sadism, psychopathy, and other dark traits. Research is needed on the causal impact of the broader range of personality disorders on sadism, in more diverse samples, including behavioural assessments of sadistic pleasure, as well as on the interplay of such personality traits with situational and affective aspects, and victim attitudes.

Narcissism in Romantic Relationships: Using Communal Activation to Promote Relationship Enhancing Attitudes

Background: People with elevated vulnerable narcissism (VN) or grandiose narcissism (GN) trait levels tend to experience greater difficulties in their romantic relationships than their counterparts with lower levels of VN or GN. Although there are no evidence-based approaches to alter the interpersonal behavior of persons with VN or GN traits, experimental research shows that it is possible to produce relationship-enhancing attitudes in people with GN traits through communal activation (CA). Objective: We examined whether a CA manipulation in the context of relationship education improves attitudes that promote romantic relationship health, and whether VN and GN would moderate these associations. Method: Participants (Nwomen =148, Nmen = 71) watched psychoeducational videos on relationships and were randomly assigned to either answer questions about the videos' content (control group) or to complete CA exercises (experimental group) in addition to questionnaires to measure empathy, criticism, commitment, desire for closeness, and communication (positive interaction, demand/withdraw communication, criticize/defend communication) before and after the experimental manipulation. Results: There was a main effect of condition, such that, relative to the control group, fewer improvements in perceived demand/withdraw communication were observed in the experimental condition. VN, but not GN, moderated the link between condition and commitment, demand/withdraw and criticize/defend communication, such that elevated VN levels predicted the most improvement in commitment, demand/withdraw and criticize/defend communication in the experimental condition. Discussion: We conclude with recommendations to adopt ego-enhancing reinforcement for communal behaviors with clients who endorse GN traits and considering less personally relevant CA exercises with clients who endorse VN traits.

Sexual Narcissism and Hypersexuality Relate to Sexual Coercion in Hookups among U.S. University Students

Sexual violence remains a prevalent issue on college campuses. Sexual coercion, a form of sexual violence, is frequently employed within casual sexual encounters (i.e., hookups). The present study investigated hypersexuality and sexual narcissism as unique predictors of sexual coercion and examined whether there were gender differences in these associations. Participants (N = 793, ages 18-25) were undergraduate students at a large southeastern university who have: (1) engaged in sexual activity within the past six months and (2) had at least one prior hookup experience. Respondents completed surveys online assessing levels of sexual narcissism, hypersexuality, and sexual coercion perpetration in hookups. Participants primarily identified as female (71.7%), White (84.2%), and heterosexual (86.6%), with an average of 9.77 sexual engagements per month. Bivariate correlations and independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine associations between and gender differences across study variables, respectively. We assessed the factor structure of study variables using confirmatory factor analysis and tested hypotheses using structural equation modeling. Compared to women, men scored higher on sexual exploitation and all hypersexuality subscales. After establishing good-fitting measurement models, we found that both sexual narcissism and hypersexuality predicted increased sexual coercion perpetration and that gender did not moderate these associations. Study findings demonstrated that sexual narcissism and hypersexuality are risk factors for sexual coercion perpetration in hookups across gender. Although associations were consistent across gender, men may report higher levels of sexual coercion perpetration risk factors. Future researchers could focus on gender differences in the etiology of sexual coercion risk factors.

Narcissistic traits and compassion: Embracing oneself while devoiding others

Grandiose narcissistic traits refer to exploitative and arrogant attitudes, while vulnerable narcissistic traits entail hypersensitivity to judgment and low self-esteem. Little is known about how individuals with narcissistic traits can improve their attitudes toward themselves and others. The current research puts self- and other compassion forward as possible targets to alleviate some of destructive patterns of narcissism. Generally, self-compassion (SC) has previously been associated with beneficial effects on psychological wellbeing, while other compassion (OC) is advantageous for interpersonal relationships. This study explored the relationship between narcissistic traits and the efficacy of experimental compassion inductions. Student and community participants (N = 230, M age = 27.41, 65.2% female) completed grandiose and vulnerable narcissistic trait, SC and OC state questionnaires, and either an SC or OC induction. It was expected that individuals with higher narcissistic traits (particularly grandiose traits) would benefit from the inductions and show higher SC after but would have greater difficulty showing meaningful increases in OC (especially OC directed at the general population). The results indicated that individual differences in grandiose and vulnerable narcissistic traits are related to the magnitude of improvements following the inductions: the theorized lack of SC in individuals with vulnerable oversensitivity to judgment traits seems possible to be counteracted through different types of compassion exercises. Moreover, higher grandiose exploitativeness-entitlement and global vulnerable narcissistic traits related to less increases than others. However, directly inducing OC in individuals with these traits was linked to greater OC improvements than improvements after inducing SC. Overall, the present findings suggest that self-compassionate behavior can be improved in individuals with high oversensitivity and that other compassionate behavior could potentially be increased if, specifically, other compassion exercises are utilized when higher levels of certain narcissistic traits are present.

Impact of narcissistic leadership on employee work outcomes in banking sector of Pakistan

Background

Narcissism has been studied as a positive as well as a negative trait. It is a personality disorder in which a person is preoccupied with power, self and vanity. Narcissists often pursue leadership and work for their personal interests which ultimately affect others’ well-being. It affects employee performance and leads toward turnover. The purpose of this study is to examine how narcissistic leadership can impact subordinates’ job-related outcomes.

Method

Data are collected from 310 banking professionals using Likert scale survey questionnaire and analyzed through SEM using AMOS.

Results

Results show that narcissistic leadership has a negative impact on subordinate job satisfaction and well-being, whereas a positive relationship with stress and intentions to quit. However, its relationship with job performance was observed to be insignificant.

Conclusion

Bosses with narcissistic tendencies drive hardworking employees away. The initial problem in narcissistic individuals is their elevated ego. To reverse the trend of narcissism, changes should be made at different levels, i.e., home, school, college or university. In order to tackle narcissism at work place, different established strategies can be used to deal with such individual/leader.

In Search of Narcissus

Narcissism, a trait reflecting egocentric exceptionalism and social selfishness, has captured scholarly interest due to its intricate composition and social implications. The construct is polyhedric, comprising several key forms: grandiose versus vulnerable, agentic versus communal, admirative versus rivalrous, collective versus individual. These forms can be integrated into structural models that add predictive power or process models that add explanatory power. The narcissistic nucleus is argued, and partly shown, to be brittle in the face of self-threat. The nucleus may derive from being overvalued, or inconsistently socialised, by parents. Narcissism entails intrapersonal benefits, as it can confer psychological health, buffer against adversity, and facilitate performance. But it can also be an interpersonal and societal liability, partly remediable with narcissism-reduction interventions.

Is Narcissism Associated with Heavy Work Investment? The Moderating Role of Workload in the Relationship between Narcissism, Workaholism, and Work Engagement

This study aimed to investigate the association between narcissism and two forms of heavy work investment, namely, workaholism and work engagement. More specifically, it was hypothesized that narcissism is positively associated with both workaholism and work engagement, with workload moderating these relationships, which are expected to be stronger when the workload is high. Overall, 217 workers completed a self-report questionnaire, and the hypothesized relationships were tested using moderated multiple regression. Results partially supported our predictions. Narcissism was positively associated with workaholism and its dimensions of working excessively and working compulsively only in individuals facing a high workload. Furthermore, narcissism was positively associated with work engagement and its dimensions of vigor and dedication (but no absorption) in employees with average levels of workload. Finally, the workload exacerbated the relationship between narcissism and work engagement and its dimensions so that these associations were stronger when the workload was high. Overall, our study suggested that in a work environment characterized by moderate levels of demand, individuals with strong narcissistic components might inherently feel energetic and dedicated (i.e., engaged) at work. Differently, in a demanding work environment, workers with high narcissism might experience higher work engagement, but they could also be at risk of workaholism.

Psychopathy subfactors distinctively predispose to dispositional and state-level of sadistic pleasure

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Sadistic pleasure - the enjoyment of harm-infliction to others - can have devastating interpersonal and societal consequences. The current knowledge on non-sexual, subclinical forms of sadistic pleasure is poor. The present study therefore focussed on the personality correlates of sadistic pleasure and investigated the relationship between the different subcomponents of psychopathy and both dispositional and state-level sadistic pleasure.

METHOD

N = 120 males drawn from a community sample filled out questionnaires to assess their level of psychopathy and dispositional sadism. Then, participants engaged in a bug-grinder procedure in which they were led to believe that they were killing pill bugs. The positive affect they reported after ostensibly killing the bugs served as measures of sadistic pleasure. The bug-grinding task was repeated a second time after installing either a positive victim attitude combined with giving human names to the bugs, or a negative victim attitude combined with labeling the bugs with numbers.

RESULTS

Although the Self-centred Impulsivity component of psychopathy had some relevance to sadism, it was the Coldheartedness subscale that showed the strongest relationship to sadistic pleasure. Specifically, increased Coldheartedness was uniquely related to more positive affect, along with less guilt after bug grinding.

LIMITATIONS

Drawbacks of the study include the unique reliance on a male, community sample, and the potential impact of demand characteristics, including a suggestion that the participant put at least some bugs into the grinder.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings underscore the differential predictive value of psychopathy components for sadistic pleasure. Coldheartedness can be considered especially disturbing because of its unique relationship to harm-infliction of the most irreversible nature (i.e. killing), and gaining pleasure out of it.

Collective Narcissism and In-Group Satisfaction Predict Opposite Attitudes Toward Refugees via Attribution of Hostility

We examined whether and why collective narcissism (i.e., resentment for insufficient recognition of the in-group's importance) versus in-group satisfaction (i.e., a belief that the in-group and one's membership in it are reasons to be proud) have opposite, unique associations with hostility toward Syrian refugees in Poland. Results of two cross-sectional studies (Study 1, N = 1066 and Study 2, N = 419) converge to indicate that collective narcissism predicts hostility toward Syrian refugees via attributing Syrian refugees with hostile intentions toward Poles. In-group satisfaction is associated with rejection of hostile actions toward Syrian refugees because it decreases hostile attribution bias with regards to Syrian refugees. Thus, being a satisfied member of a national group promotes tolerance toward refugees, while collective narcissism is associated with blaming refugees for provoking the in-group's hostility.

Relationships Amongst Aggression, Self-Theory, Loneliness, and Depression in Emerging Adults

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships amongst aggression, self-theory, loneliness, and depression. The study group consisted of 904 student volunteers from various undergraduate programs of a university in Central Anatolia. Simple and hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses, as well as t-tests, were used to analyze the data. In the preliminary analysis performed, females’ depression levels and males’ aggression levels are higher. The study findings revealed that self-theory negatively and significantly predicted aggression, whereas loneliness and depression positively and significantly predicted aggression in emerging adulthood. Another important finding showed that both direct and indirect relationships exist between self-theory and aggression. According to these findings, loneliness and depression play partially mediating roles individually, and fully mediating roles together, with regard to the relationship between self-theory and aggression.

How Moral Perceptions Influence Intergroup Tolerance: Evidence From Lebanon, Morocco, and the United States

Intergroup boundaries are often associated with differences in moral codes. How does the perception of similarity and dissimilarity in moral worldviews influence tolerant relationships between members of different groups? We theorized that the relationship between perceived moral similarity and intergroup tolerance is domain specific. Specifically, because people treat autonomy values (e.g., caring for others, being fair) as denoting universal rights and obligations, but binding values (e.g., purity) as denoting rights and obligations that apply preferentially for their own group, perceived similarity on autonomy values should be more relevant than perceived similarity on binding values to intergroup tolerance. Here, we describe correlational and experimental evidence to support these predictions from studies carried out in Lebanon (with sectarian groups), in Morocco (with ethnic groups), and in the United States (with ideological groups). Implications for understanding intergroup relations and theories of morality are discussed.

The Role of Narcissism in Aggression and Violence: A Systematic Review

It has long been hypothesized that feelings of inferiority or low self-esteem lead individuals to aggress against those they view as being threatening. However, recent studies suggest that it is not just the level of self-esteem but stability that is relevant to understanding this process. As such, researchers have looked to related constructs, such as narcissism, in trying to understand aggressive behaviors. Narcissism is characterized by a dissociation between an unconscious sense of inadequacy and a conscious feeling of superiority. A large number of studies examining the relationship between narcissism and violence have recently been published within both clinical and student populations. This review aimed to systematically collate the findings of such studies and integrate them within current theories of violence. Electronic literature databases such as Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsychINFO, EMBASE, Cochrane databases, and LexisNexis (legal database) were searched to identify studies examining the relationship between narcissism and violence. Twenty articles were included in this review, describing 25 separate samples. Findings suggest that narcissism is relevant in understanding aggression and violence. This was consistent across both clinical and nonclinical populations and therefore does not appear to be an artifact of studying either very violent or student samples. Evidence from student samples strongly supported the association between narcissism and aggression following an ego threat, while studies using clinical samples did not examine the effect of an ego threat. These findings may have an impact on how we understand, predict, and reduce violence.

Development and validation of the Single Item Trait Empathy Scale (SITES)

Empathy involves feeling compassion for others and imagining how they feel. In this article, we develop and validate the Single Item Trait Empathy Scale (SITES), which contains only one item that takes seconds to complete. In seven studies (N=5,724), the SITES was found to be both reliable and valid. It correlated in expected ways with a wide variety of intrapersonal outcomes. For example, it is negatively correlated with narcissism, depression, anxiety, and alexithymia. In contrast, it is positively correlated with other measures of empathy, self-esteem, subjective well-being, and agreeableness. The SITES also correlates with a wide variety of interpersonal outcomes, especially compassion for others and helping others. The SITES is recommended in situations when time or question quantity is constrained.

Narcissistic Force Meets Systemic Resistance: The Energy Clash Model

This article focuses on the interplay between narcissistic leaders and organizations. It attempts to capture the gist of this interplay with a model outlining the narcissistic organizational trajectory. The Energy Clash Model borrows and adapts a phase/state physics metaphor to conceptualize narcissism as a force that enters or emerges in a stable system (i.e., organization) as a leader, destabilizes it, and stabilizes it at a different state or is expelled. The model consists of three time-contingent phases: perturbation, conflict, and resolution. Narcissists create instability through waves of excitement, proposed reforms, and an inspiring vision for organization’s future ( perturbation). With the passage of time, though, systemic awareness and alertness intensify, as organizational costs—in terms of human resources and monetary losses—accrue. Narcissistic energy clashes directly with the organization ( conflict), a clash likely to restabilize the system eventually. The conflict may provoke the exit of the narcissistic leader or his or her accommodation, that is, steps or controls negotiated between the system and the leader ( resolution). Although narcissism is subject to organizational liability, narcissistic energy, when managed and directed properly, may contribute to organizational innovation and evolution. Thus, several interventions for working with narcissistic leaders are discussed.

Threatening Men's Mate Value Influences Aggression Toward an Intrasexual Rival: The Moderating Role of Narcissism

Correlational research has linked low mate value (MV)--one's worth as a mating partner to members of the opposite sex--with aggression in men. In 2 experiments, we examined the effects of self-perceived MV on men's reported willingness to aggress directly toward a hypothetical mate poacher (Experiment 1, N = 60) and observable aggression toward a same-sex rival in a laboratory paradigm (Experiment 2, N = 54). In both experiments, the roles of narcissism in moderating the effect of MV condition on subsequent aggression were examined. Results of Experiment 1 indicated that men randomly assigned to the low MV condition were significantly more willing to report aggressive intention than men in the high MV condition. This relationship was moderated by narcissism such that men in the low MV condition who were also high in narcissism were the most likely to aggress. Results of Experiment 2 similarly showed that men in the low MV condition relative to the high MV condition aggressed more toward a same-sex rival when they were high in narcissism. These findings support evolutionary hypotheses surrounding the importance of self-perceived MV in directing aggressive mating efforts, as situated in the framework of threatened egotism.

Entitled vengeance: A meta-analysis relating narcissism to provoked aggression

Narcissism has long been used to predict aggressive or vengeful responses to provocations from others. The strength of this relation can, however, vary widely from study to study. Narcissism and revenge were examined in 84 independent samples (N = 11297), along with the moderating role of sample type (i.e., child/adolescent, prisoner, undergraduate, or general samples), type of narcissism measure used (i.e., Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Psychological Entitlement Scale, Short D3, etc.), the nature of the provocation, and the type of provoked aggression examined. Narcissism was positively related to provoked aggression across studies (ρ = .25), but that relation was stronger in child/adolescent samples (ρ = .36) and when measures of entitlement or vulnerable narcissism were employed (ρ = .29). Implications for practical research, as well as neglected areas of research on narcissism and provoked aggression are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 42:362-379, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

State narcissism and aggression: The mediating roles of anger and hostile attributional bias

Prior research has documented a relationship between narcissism and aggression but has focused only on dispositional narcissism without considering situational factors that may increase narcissism temporarily. This study explored the possibility that an increase in state narcissism would foster aggressive responding by increasing anger and hostile attributional bias following unexpected provocation among 162 college students from China. We created a guided-imagination manipulation to heighten narcissism and investigated its effects on anger, aroused hostile attribution bias, and aggressive responses following a provocation with a 2 (narcissism/neutral manipulation) × 2 (unexpected provocation/positive evaluation condition) between-subjects design. We found that the manipulation did increase self-reported state narcissism. The increase in state narcissism in turn heightened aggression, and this relation was mediated by increased anger. Regardless of the level of state narcissism, individuals were more aggressive after being provoked and this effect of provocation was mediated by hostile attributional bias. The findings indicate that narcissism can be temporarily heightened in a nonclinical sample of individuals, and that the effect of state narcissism on aggression is mediated by anger. Differences between state and trait narcissism and possible influences of culture are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 42:333-345, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

When People Evaluate Others, the Level of Others’ Narcissism Matters Less to Evaluators Who Are Narcissistic

Prior studies have documented how people in general respond to others’ narcissism, but existing research offers few clues about whether and how evaluator narcissism influences judgments of traits associated with narcissism. Participants completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and then evaluated hypothetical target persons. Target narcissism was conveyed through a single trait description (Study 1), a list of traits (Study 2), or Facebook content (Study 3). Narcissistic qualities were reliably viewed unfavorably, but narcissistic participants were comparatively less bothered by target narcissism and less positive in their judgments of targets without narcissistic qualities. In each study, symptoms of the presence or absence of narcissism had less impact on the social judgments of participants who were narcissistic.

The positive emotions that facilitate the fulfillment of needs may not be positive emotions at all: the role of ambivalence

RATIONALE

According to some scholars, if individuals experience over three times as many positive emotions as negative emotions, they are more likely to thrive. We contend, however, that perhaps positive and negative emotions that overlap in time are likely to enhance wellbeing. Specifically, if positive and negative emotions are experienced simultaneously rather than separately-called ambivalent emotions-the fundamental needs of individuals are fulfilled more frequently.

EVIDENCE

Considerable evidence supports this perspective. First, many emotions that enhance wellbeing, although classified as positive, also coincide with negative feelings. Second, ambivalent emotions, rather than positive or negative emotions separately, facilitate creativity and resilience. Third, ambivalent emotions activate distinct cognitive systems that enable individuals to form attainable goals, refine their skills, and enhance their relationships.

Development and validation of the Single Item Narcissism Scale (SINS)

Main Objectives

The narcissistic personality is characterized by grandiosity, entitlement, and low empathy. This paper describes the development and validation of the Single Item Narcissism Scale (SINS). Although the use of longer instruments is superior in most circumstances, we recommend the SINS in some circumstances (e.g. under serious time constraints, online studies).

Methods

In 11 independent studies (total N = 2,250), we demonstrate the SINS' psychometric properties.

Results

The SINS is significantly correlated with longer narcissism scales, but uncorrelated with self-esteem. It also has high test-retest reliability. We validate the SINS in a variety of samples (e.g., undergraduates, nationally representative adults), intrapersonal correlates (e.g., positive affect, depression), and interpersonal correlates (e.g., aggression, relationship quality, prosocial behavior). The SINS taps into the more fragile and less desirable components of narcissism.

Significance

The SINS can be a useful tool for researchers, especially when it is important to measure narcissism with constraints preventing the use of longer measures.

Changes in Adult Attachment Styles in American College Students Over Time

The current article examines changes over time in a commonly used measure of adult attachment style. A cross-temporal meta-analysis was conducted on 94 samples of American college students (total N = 25,243, between 1988 and 2011) who chose the most representative description of four possible attachment styles (Secure, Dismissing, Preoccupied, and Fearful) on the Relationship Questionnaire. The percentage of students with Secure attachment styles has decreased in recent years (1988: 48.98%; 2011: 41.62%), whereas the percentage of students with Insecure attachment styles (sum of Dismissing, Preoccupied, Fearful) has increased in recent years (1988: 51.02%; 2011: 58.38%). The percentage of students with Dismissing attachment styles has increased over time (1988: 11.93%; 2011: 18.62%), even after controlling for age, gender, race, and publication status. Positive views of others have declined across the same time period. We discuss possible implications and explanations for these changes.

National Identity and Group Narcissism as Predictors of Intergroup Attitudes Toward Undocumented Latino Immigrants in the United States

The debate surrounding immigration reform to address undocumented Latino immigrants in the United States has been emotionally charged and polarizing. This study’s goal was to better understand some of the psychological predictors of attitudes toward undocumented Latino immigrants in the United States, namely, collective identity as an American, group-level narcissism, and their interaction. A university sample ( N = 223) completed an online survey measuring attitudes toward undocumented Latino immigrants. As anticipated, we found that, at mean and high (but not low) levels of group narcissism, national in-group identification was a significant predictor of attitudes toward undocumented Latino immigrants. The implications of these findings, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed in light of the current debate on undocumented immigration in the United States.

The influence of individual differences in sensitivity to provocations on provoked aggression

Using an adapted form of the Taylor Competitive reaction Time (TCRT) task [Taylor (1967). Journal of Personality, 35, 297-310], this study is the first to examine the influence of individual differences in sensitivity to provocations (SP) [Lawrence (2006). Aggressive Behavior, 32, 3, 241-252] as opposed to sensitivity to frustrations (SF) on provoked aggression (noise blasts delivered to a bogus partner). Participants (N = 144) played a competitive reaction time task against a bogus partner, who delivered increasingly loud noise blasts to participants on trials when the participant lost. The study also manipulated the partner's behavior such that, in initial trials, the partner either delivered moderate blasts to the participant or no blasts at all. While accounting for broad trait aggression, those high in SP delivered louder noise blasts to a bogus partner when provoked but not when unprovoked. These individuals also delivered more maximum blasts to the partner and delivered maximum blasts earlier in the TCRT. The effects of SP became non-significant when the partner was initially non-aggressive. Similarly, an initially non-aggressive partner reduced participant aggression under later conditions of moderate provocation from the partner, but this effect became non-significant under subsequent high provocation from the partner. While being related to SP, SF did not influence provoked aggression.

Students aggress against professors in reaction to receiving poor grades: an effect moderated by student narcissism and self-esteem

Laboratory evidence about whether students' evaluations of teaching (SETs) are valid is lacking. Results from three (3) independent studies strongly confirm that "professors" who were generous with their grades were rewarded for their favor with higher SETs, while professors who were frugal were punished with lower SETs (Study 1, d = 1.51; Study 2, d = 1.59; Study 3, partial η(2) = .26). This result was found even when the feedback was manipulated to be more or less insulting (Study 3). Consistent with laboratory findings on direct aggression, results also indicated that, when participants were given a poorer feedback, higher self-esteem (Study 1 and Study 2) and higher narcissism (Study 1) were associated with them giving lower (more aggressive) evaluations of the "professor." Moreover, consistent with findings on self-serving biases, participants higher in self-esteem who were in the positive grade/feedback condition exhibited a self-enhancing bias by giving their "professor" higher evaluations (Study 1 and Study 2). The aforementioned relationships were not moderated by the professor's sex or rank (teaching assistant vs.professor). Results provide evidence that (1) students do aggress against professors through poor teaching evaluations, (2) threatened egotism among individuals with high self-esteem is associated with more aggression, especially when coupled with high narcissism, and (3) self-enhancing biases are robust among those with high self-esteem.