Clinical and radiological features of symptomatic central nervous system tuberculomas

Paradoxical manifestations during tuberculous meningitis treatment among HIV-negative patients: a retrospective descriptive study and literature review

BACKGROUND

Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) is the most frequent, severe, and disabling form of central nervous system (CNS) tuberculosis (TB). TBM paradoxical manifestations are characterized by clinical or paraclinical worsening after 1 month of effective anti-TB treatment in patients who initially responded to treatment despite the use of adjunctive corticosteroids.

METHODS

Retrospective descriptive study of consecutive HIV-negative adult patients (≥ 18 years) with definitive TBM who developed a paradoxical manifestation following anti-TB in a tertiary-care hospital in Mexico from 2009 to 2019; we also conducted a literature review of published cases/series of paradoxical manifestations in HIV-negative patients from 1980 to 2020.

RESULTS

We detected 84 cases of definitive TBM; 55 (68.7%) HIV-negative patients and 29 (36.3%) HIV-infected patients. Among HIV-negative patients, four (7.3%), three female and one male (19-49 years old), developed a paradoxical manifestation within 4-14 weeks following treatment initiation despite receiving adequate corticosteroid doses; Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid of three cases and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in one more. Two patients developed vasculopathy-related cerebral infarctions, one severe basilar meningitis, and hydrocephalus, one more a tuberculoma. Two were treated with intravenous cyclophosphamide, and two with steroids. One of the patients treated with steroids died; patients who received cyclophosphamide had a good clinical response.

CONCLUSIONS

This case series illustrates the diverse clinical/radiologic paradoxical manifestations of TBM in HIV-negative patients. Cyclophosphamide may be safe and effective in treating TBM-associated paradoxical manifestations. Specific diagnostic and care protocols for these patients are needed.

Management of intracranial tuberculous mass lesions: how long should we treat for?

Tuberculous intracranial mass lesions are common in settings with high tuberculosis (TB) incidence and HIV prevalence. The diagnosis of such lesions, which include tuberculoma and tuberculous abscesses, is often presumptive and based on radiological features, supportive evidence of TB elsewhere and response to TB treatment. However, the treatment response is unpredictable, with lesions frequently enlarging paradoxically or persisting for many years despite appropriate TB treatment and corticosteroid therapy. Most international guidelines recommend a 9-12 month course of TB treatment for central nervous system TB when the infecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( M.tb) strain is sensitive to first-line drugs. However, there is variation in opinion and practice with respect to the duration of TB treatment in patients with tuberculomas or tuberculous abscesses. A major reason for this is the lack of prospective clinical trial evidence. Some experts suggest continuing treatment until radiological resolution of enhancing lesions has been achieved, but this may unnecessarily expose patients to prolonged periods of potentially toxic drugs. It is currently unknown whether persistent radiological enhancement of intracranial tuberculomas after 9-12 months of treatment represents active disease, inflammatory response in a sterilized lesion or merely revascularization. The consequences of stopping TB treatment prior to resolution of lesional enhancement have rarely been explored. These important issues were discussed at the 3 rd International Tuberculous Meningitis Consortium meeting. Most clinicians were of the opinion that continued enhancement does not necessarily represent treatment failure and that prolonged TB therapy was not warranted in patients presumably infected with M.tb strains susceptible to first-line drugs. In this manuscript we highlight current medical treatment practices, benefits and disadvantages of different TB treatment durations and the need for evidence-based guidelines regarding the treatment duration of patients with intracranial tuberculous mass lesions.

Management of intracranial tuberculous mass lesions: how long should we treat for?

Tuberculous intracranial mass lesions are common in settings with high tuberculosis (TB) incidence and HIV prevalence. The diagnosis of such lesions, which include tuberculoma and tuberculous abscesses, is often presumptive and based on radiological features, supportive evidence of TB elsewhere and response to TB treatment. However, the treatment response is unpredictable, with lesions frequently enlarging paradoxically or persisting for many years despite appropriate TB treatment and corticosteroid therapy. Most international guidelines recommend a 9-12 month course of TB treatment for central nervous system TB when the infecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( M.tb) strain is sensitive to first-line drugs. However, there is variation in opinion and practice with respect to the duration of TB treatment in patients with tuberculomas or tuberculous abscesses. A major reason for this is the lack of prospective clinical trial evidence. Some experts suggest continuing treatment until radiological resolution of enhancing lesions has been achieved, but this may unnecessarily expose patients to prolonged periods of potentially toxic drugs. It is currently unknown whether persistent radiological enhancement of intracranial tuberculomas after 9-12 months of treatment represents active disease, inflammatory response in a sterilized lesion or merely revascularization. The consequences of stopping TB treatment prior to resolution of lesional enhancement have rarely been explored. These important issues were discussed at the 3 rd International Tuberculous Meningitis Consortium meeting. Most clinicians were of the opinion that continued enhancement does not necessarily represent treatment failure and that prolonged TB therapy was not warranted in patients presumably infected with M.tb strains susceptible to first-line drugs. In this manuscript we highlight current medical treatment practices, benefits and disadvantages of different TB treatment durations and the need for evidence-based guidelines regarding the treatment duration of patients with intracranial tuberculous mass lesions.

Management of intracranial tuberculous mass lesions: how long should we treat for?

Tuberculous intracranial mass lesions are common in settings with high tuberculosis (TB) incidence and HIV prevalence. The diagnosis of such lesions, which include tuberculoma and tuberculous abscesses, is often presumptive and based on radiological features, supportive evidence of TB elsewhere and response to TB treatment. However, the treatment response is unpredictable, with lesions frequently enlarging paradoxically or persisting for many years despite appropriate TB treatment and corticosteroid therapy. Most international guidelines recommend a 9-12 month course of TB treatment for central nervous system TB when the infecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) strain is sensitive to first-line drugs. However, there is variation in opinion and practice with respect to the duration of TB treatment in patients with tuberculomas or tuberculous abscesses. A major reason for this is the lack of prospective clinical trial evidence. Some experts suggest continuing treatment until radiological resolution of enhancing lesions has been achieved, but this may unnecessarily expose patients to prolonged periods of potentially toxic drugs. It is currently unknown whether persistent radiological enhancement of intracranial tuberculomas after 9-12 months of treatment represents active disease, inflammatory response in a sterilized lesion or merely revascularization. The consequences of stopping TB treatment prior to resolution of lesional enhancement have rarely been explored. These important issues were discussed at the 3rd International Tuberculous Meningitis Consortium meeting. Most clinicians were of the opinion that continued enhancement does not necessarily represent treatment failure and that prolonged TB therapy was not warranted in patients presumably infected with M.tb strains susceptible to first-line drugs. In this manuscript we highlight current medical treatment practices, benefits and disadvantages of different TB treatment durations and the need for evidence-based guidelines regarding the treatment duration of patients with intracranial tuberculous mass lesions.

Symptomatic central nervous system tuberculoma, a case report in the United States and literature review

Intracranial tuberculoma is one of the rare central nervous system manifestations of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), seen in only 1% of tuberculosis patients. It can manifest as single or multiple lesions, most commonly located in the frontal and parietal lobes. Clinical features are similar to any space-occupying lesion in the brain and can present in the absence of MTB symptoms in other parts of the body. In this article, a 69-year-old immunocompetent man, with history of treated latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) was reported. He presented with multiple joint arthralgias, weight loss, odd behavior, forgetfulness, intermittent fevers and syncope. Brain imaging revealed numerous enhancing intra-parenchymal lesions in cerebral and cerebellar hemispheres. Patient was successfully treated with anti-tuberculosis medications and corticosteroids, with clinical improvement on future follow ups. High clinical suspicion for tuberculoma as a differential diagnosis of any brain lesion, even in immunocompetent patients in low MTB prevalence countries, can result in early diagnosis and successful clinical outcomes.

Paradoxical reaction in tuberculous meningitis: presentation, predictors and impact on prognosis

BACKGROUND

Awareness about paradoxical reactions in tuberculous meningitis is crucial as a paradoxical reaction may lead to certain wrong conclusions (for example, an erroneous diagnosis, and a possibility of treatment failure, mycobacterial drug-resistance, drug toxicity, or presence of a malignancy). The present study was planned to evaluate the incidence and predictive factors of paradoxical reactions in light of clinical, cerebrospinal fluid, and neuroimaging characteristics.

METHODS

In this prospective cohort study, consecutive patients fulfilling the International Consensus criteria of tuberculous meningitis were included. Patients were subjected to clinical evaluation, cerebrospinal fluid evaluation, and neuroimaging. Patients were treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs along with corticosteroids. Patients were regularly followed up at 3 monthly intervals. At each follow up patients were evaluated clinically and repeat cerebrospinal fluid analysis was performed along with repeat neuroimaging. Disability assessment was done using Barthel index.

RESULTS

We enrolled 141 patients of tuberculous meningitis. Approximately one-third of patients (44/141; 31.2 %) developed a paradoxical reaction. Twenty-seven patients developed hydrocephalus, 26 developed tuberculomas, 12 developed optochiasmatic arachnoiditis and 4 patients had spinal arachnoiditis. In 41 patients (out of 44) cerebrospinal fluid paradoxically worsened (increase in cells and/or protein); 2 demonstrated a decrease in cells with polymorph predominance while in one it was normal. In 3 patients, paradoxical cerebrospinal fluid changes were not associated with neuroimaging changes. On multivariate analysis, predictors of paradoxical reaction were female gender (p = 0.013), HIV positivity (p = 0.01) and a shorter duration of illness (p = 0.049). Development of paradoxical reactions did not predict the disability status of the patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Paradoxical reaction occurs in approximately one-third of patients with tuberculous meningitis. Female gender, concomitant HIV infection, and a shorter duration of illness were significant predictors. Paradoxical reactions did not adversely affect the outcome.

Paradoxical Manifestation is Common in HIV-negative Tuberculous Meningitis

Paradoxical manifestation is worsening of pre-existing tuberculous lesion or appearance of new lesions in patients whose condition initially improved with antituberculous treatment. Our hypothesis was that paradoxical manifestation in non-HIV tuberculous meningitis (TBM) patients was underestimated and this could contribute to patients' prognosis. This was the first systemic study of paradoxical manifestation in HIV-negative TBM patients. Between 2009 and 2014, TBM patients were studied prospectively in 2 hospitals. Clinical features, cerebrospinal fluid, and radiological findings were monitored. Paradoxical manifestation was divided into definite (4 weeks or more) and probable (between 14 and 27 d) after commencement of antituberculous treatment. Forty-one non-HIV TBM patients were recruited. Definite paradoxical manifestation occurred in 23/41 (56%) of the patients. Time to onset of paradoxical manifestation was between 28 days and 9 months, and majority was between 28 and 50 days. Neuroimaging manifestation in the brain (22/41 patients, 54%) and clinical manifestation (22/41 patients, 54%) were most commonly seen, followed by cerebrospinal fluid manifestation (7/41 patients, 17%). Neuroimaging changes most commonly seen were worsening of leptomeningeal enhancement, new infarcts, new tuberculomas, and enlargement of tuberculoma. Initial Computed Tomography Angiography/magnetic resonance angiography brain showed vasculitis in 14 patients, with 2 (12.5%) showing paradoxical vasculitis during follow-up. Recurrence of the paradoxical manifestation was seen in 7/23 (30%) of the patients. More than half (14/23, 61%) of the patients improved, 6 (26%) patients died, and 3 (13%) patients had persistent neurological deficit. Paradoxical manifestation was very common in non-HIV TBM patients. Neuroimaging paradoxical manifestation of 2-4 weeks may not be paradoxical manifestation but could be delayed treatment response.

Multi-slice computed tomography 5-minute delayed scan is superior to immediate scan after contrast media application in characterization of intracranial tuberculosis

Background

The aim of this study was to determine whether the diagnosis of intracranial tuberculosis (TB) can be improved when multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT) scans are taken with a 5-min delay after contrast media application.

Material/Methods

Pre- and post-contrast CT scans of the head were obtained from 30 patients using a 16-slice spiral CT. Dual-phase acquisition was performed immediately and 5 min after contrast agent injection. Diagnostic values of different images were compared using a scoring system applied by 2 experienced radiologists.

Results

We found 526 lesions in 30 patients, including 22 meningeal thickenings, 235 meningeal tuberculomas/tubercles, and 269 parenchymal tuberculomas/tubercles. Images obtained with 5-min delayed scan time were superior in terms of lesion size and meningeal thickening outlining in all disease types (P<0.01). The ability to distinguish between vascular sections from the cerebral sulcus and tubercle was also improved (P<0.01).

Conclusions

Image acquisition with 5-min delay after contrast agent injection should be performed as a standard scanning protocol to diagnose intracranial TB.

Paradoxical reaction in HIV negative tuberculous meningitis

This review focusses on paradoxical reactions occurring during the treatment of tuberculous meningitis (TBM) in human immunodeficiency virus-negative cases. A paradoxical reaction is defined as the worsening of a pre-existing lesion or the appearance of new lesion in a patient whose clinical symptoms initially improved with anti-tuberculosis treatment. A number of different paradoxical reactions have been reported in patients with TBM including expansion of existing cerebral tuberculomas, and appearance of new tuberculomas, hydrocephalus, and optochiasmatic and spinal arachnoiditis. While the exact mechanism of paradoxical reactions is uncertain, an exaggerated immune reaction against Mycobacterium tuberculosis-associated antigens is currently the most accepted theory for tuberculous paradoxical reaction. Corticosteroids are considered to have a beneficial effect in the management of paradoxical reactions. Immuno-modulatory drugs, including tumor necrosis factor-α antagonists, thalidomide and interferon-γ have been used in isolated cases with more severe forms of paradoxical reactions.

Tuberculoma of the Cavernous Sinus and Meckel's Cave in a Child

Tuberculous infection of the cavernous sinus and Meckel's cave is extremely rare. In this report, we describe a patient with tuberculoma of the cavernous sinus and Meckel's cave, extending to the petrous apex. The patient underwent microsurgical excision of the lesion and antitubercular chemotherapy resulting in a good outcome. We describe the diagnostic difficulties and review the relevant literature.

En plaque intradural extramedullary spinal tuberculoma and concurrent intracranial tuberculomas: paradoxical response to antituberculous therapy. Case report

Spinal intradural extramedullary tuberculoma is a rare entity. Rarer still are extensive en plaque intradural extramedullary tuberculomas occurring concurrently with multiple intracranial tuberculomas as a paradoxical response to chemotherapy for tuberculosis (TB). The authors describe the case of a 21-year-old man who was treated for tuberculous meningitis. Three months after the episode of meningitis, while undergoing chemotherapy for TB, he developed features of thoracic myelopathy. Investigations revealed an extensive en plaque intradural extramedullary lesion spanning seven segments in the lower thoracic spine. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain revealed multiple asymptomatic intracranial tuberculomas. Even after further treatment with antituberculous chemotherapy was initiated, the lesion failed to respond. The authors performed a laminectomy and excised the en plaque intradural extramedullary lesion. The patient's condition responded well to this treatment. Although the appearance of intracranial tuberculoma as a paradoxical response to chemotherapy has been previously reported, no authors have reported on the development of an extensive en plaque intradural extramedullary tuberculoma in conjunction with asymptomatic multiple intracranial tuberculomas as a paradoxical response. In cases in which patients present with compressive myelopathy following therapy for tuberculous meningitis, it is important to consider in the differential diagnosis that intradural extramedullary tuberculoma may be a paradoxical response to chemotherapy. The authors' experience and their review of the literature indicate that surgery has a definitive role to play in the management of spinal intradural extramedullary tuberculoma.

Isolated intrasellar tuberculoma mimicking pituitary adenoma

A 37-year-old woman presenting with galactorrhea and menstrual irregularity due to an intrasellar lesion of the pituitary gland underwent transsphenoidal surgery for histopathological diagnosis and removal of the lesion. Histological findings were consistent with a tuberculoma. The post-operative course was satisfactory with resolution of galactorrhea and improved ovulatory cycle. The patient was successfully treated with a combination of surgical resection and anti-tuberculous therapy for one year, which resulted in hormonal and tuberculosis control. This patient appears unique regarding the location of the lesion and the dramatic response to surgical treatment. Although differential diagnosis of inflammatory pathologies of the intrasellar region presents difficulties, this patient demonstrates that tuberculoma should be considered.