Ontogenetic changes in mineralization and bone geometry in the femur of muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus)

Locomotion of an adult female and juvenile male aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) in Torotorofotsy, Madagascar

Aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) locate and acquire invertebrates from within woody substrates at all levels of the rainforest; yet how their locomotion helps them accommodate this diet has not been explored in detail. We studied the locomotor behavior of an adult female (N = 1,085) and juvenile male (N = 708) aye-aye in the undisturbed forest of Torotorofotsy, Madagascar from May to December 2017. We used bout sampling to record locomotion during foraging and travel of the two radio-collared individuals. We used χ ² tests to compare overall locomotion, travel, and foraging, as well as strata and support use. We performed a correspondence analysis to examine relationships between individual behaviors, strata, and support types. Leaping accounted for 47.9% and 50.1% of all locomotor activity in the adult female and juvenile male, respectively. Leaping was the most common behavior during travel in both individuals (59.2% and 53.9%, respectively), whereas head-first descent was most frequent during foraging (35.0% and 48.0%, respectively). For all three locomotor categories, the main canopy (40.3%-79.6%) was used most frequently and trunks were the most frequently used support type (50.7%-60.0%). There is a strong association between strata and support use overall and during travel. Quadrupedal walking was significantly associated with the main canopy, as was head-first descent with the low canopy. Our analysis demonstrates that aye-ayes use a variety of locomotor behaviors to forage for invertebrates. Aye-ayes' ability to repurpose their positional repertoire to acquire other resources in degraded forests should not obscure the importance of invertebrates to this species.

Long bone histomorphogenesis of the naked mole-rat: Histodiversity and intraspecific variation

Lacking fur, living in eusocial colonies and having the longest lifespan of any rodent, makes naked mole-rats (NMRs) rather peculiar mammals. Although they exhibit a high degree of polymorphism, skeletal plasticity and are considered a novel model to assess the effects of delayed puberty on the skeletal system, scarce information on their morphogenesis exists. Here, we examined a large ontogenetic sample (n = 76) of subordinate individuals to assess the pattern of bone growth and bone microstructure of fore- and hindlimb bones by using histomorphological techniques. Over 290 undecalcified thin cross-sections from the midshaft of the humerus, ulna, femur, and tibia from pups, juveniles and adults were analyzed with polarized light microscopy. Similar to other fossorial mammals, NMRs exhibited a systematic cortical thickening of their long bones, which clearly indicates a conserved functional adaptation to withstand the mechanical strains imposed during digging, regardless of their chisel-tooth predominance. We describe a high histodiversity of bone matrices and the formation of secondary osteons in NMRs. The bones of pups are extremely thin-walled and grow by periosteal bone formation coupled with considerable expansion of the medullary cavity, a process probably tightly regulated and adapted to optimize the amount of minerals destined for skeletal development, to thus allow the female breeder to produce a higher number of pups, as well as several litters. Subsequent cortical thickening in juveniles involves high amounts of endosteal bone apposition, which contrasts with the bone modeling of other mammals where a periosteal predominance exists. Adults have bone matrices predominantly consisting of parallel-fibered bone and lamellar bone, which indicate intermediate to slow rates of osteogenesis, as well as the development of poorly vascularized lamellar-zonal tissues separated by lines of arrested growth (LAGs) and annuli. These features reflect the low metabolism, low body temperature and slow growth rates reported for this species, as well as indicate a cyclical pattern of osteogenesis. The presence of LAGs in captive individuals was striking and indicates that postnatal osteogenesis and its consequent cortical stratification most likely represents a plesiomorphic thermometabolic strategy among endotherms which has been suggested to be regulated by endogenous rhythms. However, the generalized presence of LAGs in this and other subterranean taxa in the wild, as well as recent investigations on variability of environmental conditions in burrow systems, supports the hypothesis that underground environments experience seasonal fluctuations that may influence the postnatal osteogenesis of animals by limiting the extension of burrow systems during the unfavorable dry seasons and therefore the finding of food resources. Additionally, the intraspecific variation found in the formation of bone tissue matrices and vascularization suggested a high degree of developmental plasticity in NMRs, which may help explaining the polymorphism reported for this species. The results obtained here represent a valuable contribution to understanding the relationship of several aspects involved in the morphogenesis of the skeletal system of a mammal with extraordinary adaptations.

Ontogeny of effective mechanical advantage in eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus)

Juvenile animals must survive in the same environment as adults despite smaller sizes, immature musculoskeletal tissues, general ecological naïveté and other limits of performance. Developmental changes in muscle leverage could constitute one mechanism to promote increased performance in juveniles despite ontogenetic limitations. We tested this hypothesis using a holistic dataset on growth and locomotor development in wild eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) to examine ontogenetic changes in hindlimb muscle effective mechanical advantage (EMA). EMA is a dimensionless index of muscle leverage, equal to the quotient of average muscle lever length and the load arm length of the ground reaction force (GRF), effectively representing the magnitude of output force arising from a given muscle force. We found that EMA at the hip and ankle joints, as well as overall hindlimb EMA, significantly declined across ontogeny in S. floridanus, whereas EMA at the knee joint remained unchanged. Ontogenetic decreases in EMA were due to isometric scaling of muscle lever arm lengths alongside positive ontogenetic allometry of GRF load arm lengths - which in turn was primarily related to positive allometry of hindlimb segment lengths. Greater EMA limits the estimated volume of hindlimb extensor muscle that has to be activated in young rabbits, likely mitigating the energetic cost of locomotion and saving metabolic resources for other physiological functions, such as growth and tissue differentiation. An additional examination of limb growth allometry across a diverse sample of mammalian taxa suggests that ontogenetic decreases in limb joint EMA may be a common mammalian trend.

Ontogenetic changes of geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the avian femur: a comparison between precocial and altricial birds

The mechanical performance of limb bones is closely associated with an animal's locomotor capability and is thus important to our understanding of animal behaviour. This study combined a geometrical analysis and three-point bending tests to address the question of how the mechanical performance of the femurs of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) and pigeon (Columba livia domestica) respond to changing functional demands during ontogeny. Results showed that hatchling quails had stiff bone tissues, and the femoral ultimate loads scaled negatively with body mass, corresponding to high functional demands during early growth. The hatchling pigeon femora had weak material properties but they showed a dramatic increase in Young's modulus during growth. Consequently, although femoral cross-sectional geometry showed negative allometry, the ultimate loads scaled positively with body mass. Older pigeons had more circular bone cross-sections than younger pigeons, probably due to load stimulation changes occurred shortly after the onset of locomotion. Negative allometry and isometry of the cross-sectional geometry of hind limb bones were observed in flying birds and ground-dwelling birds, respectively. The correspondence between geometrical change and locomotor pattern suggests that ontogenetic changes in cross-sectional geometry may be an effective indicator of avian locomotor behaviour.

Ontogenetic allometry and architectural properties of the paravertebral and hindlimb musculature in Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus): functional implications for developmental changes in locomotor performance

Due to small body size, an immature musculoskeletal system, and other growth-related limits on performance, juvenile mammals frequently experience a greater risk of predation than their adult counterparts. As a result, behaviorally precocious juveniles are hypothesized to exhibit musculoskeletal advantages that permit them to accelerate rapidly and evade predation. This hypothesis was tested through detailed quantitative evaluation of muscle growth in wild Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus). Cottontail rabbits experience high rates of mortality during the first year of life, suggesting that selection might act to improve performance in growing juveniles. Therefore, it was predicted that muscle properties associated with force and power capacity should be enhanced in juvenile rabbits to facilitate enhanced locomotor performance. We quantified muscle architecture from 24 paravertebral and hindlimb muscles across ontogeny in a sample of n = 29 rabbits and evaluated the body mass scaling of muscle mass (MM), physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), isometric force (Fmax ), and instantaneous power (Pinst ), along with several dimensionless architectural indices. In contrast to our hypothesis, MM and PCSA for most muscles change with positive allometry during growth by scaling at M b 1.3 and M b 1.1 , respectively, whereas Fmax and Pinst generally scale indistinguishably from isometry, as do the architectural indices tested. However, scaling patterns indicate that the digital flexors and ankle extensors of juvenile S. floridanus have greater capacities for force and power, respectively, than those in adults, suggesting these muscle properties may be a part of several compensatory features that promote enhanced acceleration performance in young rabbits. Overall, our study implies that body size constraints place larger, more mature rabbits at a disadvantage during acceleration, and that adults must develop hypertrophied muscles in order to maintain mechanical similarity in force and power capacities across development. These findings challenge the accepted understanding that juvenile animals are at a performance detriment relative to adults. Instead, for prey-predator interactions necessitating short intervals of high force and power generation relative to body mass, as demonstrated by rapid acceleration of cottontail rabbits fleeing predators, it may be the adults that struggle to keep pace with juveniles.

Selection for longer limbs in mice increases bone stiffness and brittleness, but does not alter bending strength

The ability of a bone to withstand loads depends on its structural and material properties. These tend to differ among species with different modes of locomotion, reflecting their unique loading patterns. The evolution of derived limb morphologies, such as the long limbs associated with jumping, may compromise overall bone strength. We evaluated bone mechanical properties in the Longshanks mouse, which was selectively bred for increased tibia length relative to body mass. We combined analyses of 3D shape and cross-sectional geometry of the tibia, with mechanical testing and bone composition assays, to compare bone strength, elastic properties and mineral composition in Longshanks mice and randomly bred controls. Our data show that, despite being more slender, cortical geometry and predicted bending strength of the Longshanks tibia were similar to controls. In whole bone bending tests, measures of bone bending strength were similar across groups; however, Longshanks tibiae were significantly more rigid, more brittle, and required less than half the energy to fracture. Tissue-level elastic properties were also altered in Longshanks mice, but the bones did not differ from the control in water content, ash content or density. These results indicate that while Longshanks bones are as strong as control tibiae, selection for increased tibia length has altered its elastic properties, possibly through changes in organic bony matrix composition. We conclude that selection for certain limb morphologies, and/or selection for rapid skeletal growth, can lead to tissue-level changes that can increase the risk of skeletal fracture, which in turn may favor the correlated evolution of compensatory mechanisms to mitigate increased fracture risk, such as delayed skeletal maturity.

Long bone histology of the subterranean rodent Bathyergus suillus (Bathyergidae): ontogenetic pattern of cortical bone thickening

Patterns of bone development in mammals are best known from terrestrial and cursorial groups, but there is a considerable gap in our understanding of how specializations for life underground affect bone growth and development. Likewise, studies of bone microstructure in wild populations are still scarce, and they often include few individuals and tend to be focused on adults. For these reasons, the processes generating bone microstructural variation at intra- and interspecific levels are not fully understood. This study comprehensively examines the bone microstructure of an extant population of Cape dune molerats, Bathyergus suillus (Bathyergidae), the largest subterranean mammal endemic to the Western Cape of South Africa. The aim of this study is to investigate the postnatal bone growth of B. suillus using undecalcified histological sections (n = 197) of the femur, humerus, tibia-fibula, ulna and radius, including males and females belonging to different ontogenetic and reproductive stages (n = 42). Qualitative histological features demonstrate a wide histodiversity with thickening of the cortex mainly resulting from endosteal and periosteal bone depositions, whilst there is scarce endosteal resorption and remodeling throughout ontogeny. This imbalanced bone modeling allows the tissues deposited during ontogeny to remain relatively intact, thus preserving an excellent record of growth. The distribution of the different bone tissues observed in the cortex depends on ontogenetic status, anatomical features (e.g. muscle attachment structures) and location on the bone (e.g. anterior or lateral). The type of bone microstructure and modeling is discussed in relation to digging behavior, reproduction and physiology of this species. This study is the first histological assessment describing the process of cortical thickening in long bones of a fossorial mammal.

Scaling of the appendicular skeleton of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

Giraffes have remarkably long and slender limb bones, but it is unknown how they grow with regard to body mass, sex, and neck length. In this study, we measured the length, mediolateral (ML) diameter, craniocaudal (CC) diameter and circumference of the humerus, radius, metacarpus, femur, tibia, and metatarsus in 10 fetuses, 21 females, and 23 males of known body masses. Allometric exponents were determined and compared. We found the average bone length increased from 340 ± 50 mm at birth to 700 ± 120 mm at maturity, while average diameters increased from 30 ± 3 to 70 ± 11 mm. Fetal bones increased with positive allometry in length (relative to body mass) and in diameter (relative to body mass and length). In postnatal giraffes bone lengths and diameters increased iso- or negatively allometric relative to increases in body mass, except for the humerus CC diameter which increased with positive allometry. Humerus circumference also increased with positive allometry, that of the radius and tibia isometrically and the femur and metapodials with negative allometry. Relative to increases in bone length, both the humerus and femur widened with positive allometry. In the distal limb bones, ML diameters increased isometrically (radius, metacarpus) or positively allometric (tibia, metatarsus) while the corresponding CC widths increased with negative allometry and isometrically, respectively. Except for the humerus and femur, exponents were not significantly different between corresponding front and hind limb segments. We concluded that the patterns of bone growth in males and females are identical. In fetuses, the growth of the appendicular skeleton is faster than it is after birth which is a pattern opposite to that reported for the neck. Allometric exponents seemed unremarkable compared to the few species described previously, and pointed to the importance of neck elongation rather than leg elongation during evolution. Nevertheless, the front limb bones and especially the humerus may show adaptation to behaviors such as drinking posture.

Limb bone morphology, bone strength, and cursoriality in lagomorphs

The primary aim of this study is to broadly evaluate the relationship between cursoriality (i.e. anatomical and physiological specialization for running) and limb bone morphology in lagomorphs. Relative to most previous studies of cursoriality, our focus on a size-restricted, taxonomically narrow group of mammals permits us to evaluate the degree to which 'cursorial specialization' affects locomotor anatomy independently of broader allometric and phylogenetic trends that might obscure such a relationship. We collected linear morphometrics and μCT data on 737 limb bones covering three lagomorph species that differ in degree of cursoriality: pikas (Ochotona princeps, non-cursorial), jackrabbits (Lepus californicus, highly cursorial), and rabbits (Sylvilagus bachmani, level of cursoriality intermediate between pikas and jackrabbits). We evaluated two hypotheses: cursoriality should be associated with (i) lower limb joint mechanical advantage (i.e. high 'displacement advantage', permitting more cursorial species to cycle their limbs more quickly) and (ii) longer, more gracile limb bones, particularly at the distal segments (as a means of decreasing rotational inertia). As predicted, highly cursorial jackrabbits are typically marked by the lowest mechanical advantage and the longest distal segments, non-cursorial pikas display the highest mechanical advantage and the shortest distal segments, and rabbits generally display intermediate values for these variables. Variation in long bone robusticity followed a proximodistal gradient. Whereas proximal limb bone robusticity declined with cursoriality, distal limb bone robusticity generally remained constant across the three species. The association between long, structurally gracile limb bones and decreased maximal bending strength suggests that the more cursorial lagomorphs compromise proximal limb bone integrity to improve locomotor economy. In contrast, the integrity of distal limb bones is maintained with increasing cursoriality, suggesting that the safety factor takes priority over locomotor economy in those regions of the postcranial skeleton that experience higher loading during locomotion. Overall, these findings support the hypothesis that cursoriality is associated with a common suite of morphological adaptations across a range of body sizes and radiations.

Ontogeny of material stiffness heterogeneity in the macaque mandibular corpus

Evidence is accumulating that bone material stiffness increases during ontogeny, and the role of elastic modulus in conditioning attributes of strength and toughness is therefore a focus of ongoing investigation. Developmental changes in structural properties of the primate mandible have been documented, but comparatively little is known about changes in material heterogeneity and their impact on biomechanical behavior. We examine a cross-sectional sample of Macaca fascicularis (N = 14) to investigate a series of hypotheses that collectively evaluate whether the patterning of material stiffness (elastic modulus) heterogeneity in the mandible differs among juvenile, subadult and adult individuals. Because differences in age-related activity patterns are known to influence bone stiffness and strength, these data are potentially useful for understanding the relationship between feeding behavior on the one hand and material and structural properties of the mandible on the other. Elastic modulus is shown to be spatially dependent regardless of age, with this dependence being explicable primarily by differences in alveolar versus basal cortical bone. Elastic modulus does not differ consistently between buccal and lingual cortical plates, despite likely differences in the biomechanical milieu of these regions. Since we found only weak support for the hypothesis that the spatial patterning of heterogeneity becomes more predictable with age, accumulated load history may not account for regional differences in bone material properties in mature individuals with respect to the mandibular corpus.

Ontogenetic scaling of fore- and hind limb posture in wild chacma baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus)

Large-scale interspecific studies of mammals ranging between 0.04–280 kg have shown that larger animals walk with more extended limb joints. Within a taxon or clade, however, the relationship between body size and joint posture is less straightforward. Factors that may affect the lack of congruence between broad and narrow phylogenetic analyses of limb kinematics include limited sampling of (1) ranges of body size, and/or (2) numbers of individuals. Unfortunately, both issues are inherent in laboratory-based or zoo locomotion research. In this study, we examined the relationship between body mass and elbow and knee joint angles (our proxies of fore- and hind limb posture, respectively) in a cross-sectional ontogenetic sample of wild chacma baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus) habituated in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, South Africa. Videos were obtained from 33 individuals of known age (12 to ≥108 months) and body mass (2–29.5 kg) during walking trials. Results show that older, heavier baboons walk with significantly more extended knee joints but not elbow joints. This pattern is consistent when examining only males, but not within the female sample. Heavier, older baboons also display significantly less variation in their hind limb posture compared to lighter, young animals. Thus, within this ontogenetic sample of a single primate species spanning an order of magnitude in body mass, hind limb posture exhibited a postural scaling phenomenon while the forelimbs did not. These findings may further help explain 1) why younger mammals (including baboons) tend to have relatively stronger bones than adults, and 2) why humeri appear relatively weaker than femora (in at least baboons). Finally, this study demonstrates how field-acquired kinematics can help answer fundamental biomechanical questions usually addressed only in animal gait laboratories.

Precocial hindlimbs and altricial forelimbs: partitioning ontogenetic strategies in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos)

Precocial development, in which juveniles are relatively mature at hatching or birth, is more common among vertebrates than altricial development, and is likely to be the basal condition. Altricial development characterizes many birds and mammals and is generally viewed as an alternate strategy, promoting fast growth rates, short developmental periods and relatively poor locomotor performance prior to attaining adult size. Many aquatic birds such as Anseriformes (ducks, geese and swans), Charadriformes (gulls and terns) and Gruiformes (rails) undergo distinctive developmental trajectories, in that hatchlings are able to run and swim the day they hatch, yet they do not begin to fly until fully grown. We hypothesized that there should be tradeoffs in apportioning bone and muscle mass to the hindlimb and forelimb that could account for these patterns in locomotor behavior within the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Growth of the musculoskeletal system in the forelimbs and hindlimbs was measured and compared with maximal aquatic and terrestrial sprint speeds and aerial descent rates throughout the 2-month-long mallard ontogenetic period. At 30 days post hatching, when body mass is 50% of adult values, hindlimb muscle mass averages 90% and forelimb muscle mass averages 10% of adult values; similarly, bone growth (length and width) in the hindlimbs and forelimbs averages 90 and 60% of adult values, respectively. The attainment of mallard locomotor performance parallels the morphological maturation of forelimb and hindlimb morphometrics - hindlimb performance initiates just after hatching at a relatively high level (~50% adult values) and gradually improves throughout the first month of development, while forelimb performance is relatively non-existent at hatching (~10% adult values), experiencing delayed and dramatic improvement in function, and maturing at the time of fledging. This divergence in ontogenetic strategy between locomotor modules could allow developing Anseriformes to inhabit aquatic, predator-reduced refuges without relying on flight for juvenile escape. Furthermore, by freeing the forelimbs from locomotor demand early in ontogeny, Anseriformes may bypass the potential canalization (i.e. retention) of juvenile form present within their precocial hindlimbs, to dramatically depart in forelimb form and function in the adult.

Ontogeny of long bone geometry in capuchin monkeys (Cebus albifrons and Cebus apella): implications for locomotor development and life history

Studies of a diverse array of animals have found that young individuals often have robust bones for their body size (i.e. augmented cross-sectional dimensions), limiting fracture risk despite general musculoskeletal immaturity. However, previous research has focused primarily on precocial taxa (e.g. rodents, lagomorphs, bovids, goats and emu). In this study, we examined the ontogenetic scaling of humeral and femoral cross-sectional robusticity in a mixed-longitudinal sample of two slow-growing, behaviourally altricial capuchin monkeys. Results showed that, when regressed against biomechanically appropriate size variables (i.e. the product of body mass and bone length), humeral and femoral bending strengths generally scale with negative allometry, matching the scaling patterns observed in previous studies of more precocial mammals. Additionally, bone strength relative to predicted loads (e.g. 'safety factors') peaks at birth and rapidly decreases during postnatal growth, falling to less than 5 per cent of peak values by weaning age. We suggest that increased safety factors during early ontogeny may be an adaptation to mitigate injury from falling during initial locomotor efforts. Overall, the results presented here suggest that ontogenetic declines in relative long bone strength may represent a common pattern among mammals that is perhaps preadaptive for different purposes among different lineages.

Ontogenetic scaling of locomotor kinetics and kinematics of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)

Kinematic and kinetic parameters of running gait were investigated through growth in the ostrich, from two weeks up to 10 months of age, in order to investigate the effects of increasing body size. Ontogenetic scaling relationships were compared with published scaling relationships found to exist with increasing body size between species to determine whether dynamic similarity is maintained during growth. During the study, ostrich mass (Mb) ranged from 0.7 kg to 108.8 kg. Morphological measurements showed that lengths scaled with positive allometry during growth (hip height ∝Mb0.40; foot segment length ∝Mb0.40; tarsometatarsus length ∝Mb0.41; tibiotarsus length ∝Mb0.38; femur length ∝Mb0.37), significantly exceeding the close to geometric scaling observed between mammalian and avian species of increasing body size. Scaling of kinematic variables largely agreed with predicted scaling for increasing size and demonstrated relationships close to dynamic similarity and, as such, ontogenetic scaling of locomotor parameters was similar to that observed with increasing body mass between species. However, the ways in which these scaling trends were achieved were very different, with ontogenetic scaling of locomotor mechanics largely resulting from simple scaling of the limb segments rather than postural changes, likely to be due to developmental constraints. Small deviations from dynamic similarity of kinematic parameters and a reduction in the predicted scaling of limb stiffness (∝Mb0.59) were found to be accounted for by the positive allometric scaling of the limb during growth.

Ontogeny of joint mechanics in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis): functional implications for mammalian limb growth and locomotor development

Juvenile animals must often compete against adults for common resources, keep pace during group travel and evade common predators, despite reduced body size and an immature musculoskeletal system. Previous morphometric studies of a diverse array of mammals, including jack rabbits, cats and capuchin monkeys, have identified growth-related changes in anatomy, such as negative allometry of limb muscle mechanical advantage, which should theoretically permit young mammals to overcome such ontogenetic limits on performance. However, it is important to evaluate the potential impact of such ;compensatory' growth trajectories within the context of developmental changes in locomotor behavior. I used standard kinematic and kinetic techniques to investigate the ontogenetic scaling of joint postures, substrate reaction forces, joint load arm lengths and external joint moments in an ontogenetic sample of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis). Results indicated that young squirrel monkeys were frequently able to limit forelimb and hind limb joint loading via a combination of changes in limb posture and limb force distribution, potentially compensating for limited muscularity at younger ages. These results complement previous morphometric studies and suggest that immature mammals may utilize a combination of behavioral and anatomical mechanisms to mitigate ontogenetic limits on locomotor performance. However, ontogenetic changes in joint posture, not limb length per se, explained most of the variation in load arm lengths and joint loading in growing squirrel monkeys, indicating the importance of incorporating both anatomical and performance measures when studying the ontogeny of limb joint mechanics.

Phenotypic integration of skeletal traits during growth buffers genetic variants affecting the slenderness of femora in inbred mouse strains

Compensatory interactions among adult skeletal traits are critical for establishing strength but complicate the search for fracture susceptibility genes by allowing many genetic variants to exist in a population without loss of function. A better understanding of how these interactions arise during growth will provide new insight into genotype-phenotype relationships and the biological controls that establish skeletal strength. We tested the hypothesis that genetic variants affecting growth in width relative to growth in length (slenderness) are coordinated with movement of the inner bone surface and matrix mineralization to match stiffness with weight-bearing loads during postnatal growth. Midshaft femoral morphology and tissue-mineral density were quantified at ages of 1 day and at 4, 8, and 16 weeks for a panel of 20 female AXB/BXA recombinant inbred mouse strains. Path Analyses revealed significant compensatory interactions among outer-surface expansion rate, inner-surface expansion rate, and tissue-mineral density during postnatal growth, indicating that genetic variants affecting bone slenderness were buffered mechanically by the precise regulation of bone surface movements and matrix mineralization. Importantly, the covariation between morphology and mineralization resulted from a heritable constraint limiting the amount of tissue that could be used to construct a functional femur. The functional interactions during growth explained 56-99% of the variability in adult traits and mechanical properties. These functional interactions provide quantitative expectations of how genetic or environmental variants affecting one trait should be compensated by changes in other traits. Variants that impair this process or that cannot be fully compensated are expected to alter skeletal growth leading to underdesigned (weak) or overdesigned (bulky) structures.

Ontogenetic scaling of foot musculoskeletal anatomy in elephants

This study quantifies the shape change in elephant manus and pes anatomy with increasing body mass, using computed tomographic scanning. Most manus and pes bones, and manus tendons, maintain their shape, or become more gracile, through ontogeny. Contrary to this, tendons of the pes become significantly more robust, suggesting functional adaptation to increasingly high loads. Ankle tendon cross-sectional area (CSA) scales the highest in the long digital extensor, proportional to body mass(1.08+/-0.21), significantly greater than the highest-scaling wrist tendon (extensor carpi ulnaris, body mass(0.69+/-0.09)). These patterns of shape change relate to the marked anatomical differences between the pillar-like manus and tripod-like pes, consistent with differences in fore- and hindlimb locomotor function. The cartilaginous predigits (prepollux and prehallux) of the manus and pes also become relatively more robust through ontogeny, and their pattern of shape change does not resemble that seen in any of the 10 metacarpals and metatarsals. Their CSAs scale above isometry proportional to body mass(0.73+/-0.09) and body mass(0.82+/-0.07) respectively. We infer a supportive function for these structures, preventing collapse of the foot pad during locomotion.

Biological co-adaptation of morphological and composition traits contributes to mechanical functionality and skeletal fragility

A path analysis was conducted to determine whether functional interactions exist among morphological, compositional, and microstructural traits for young adult human tibias. Data provided evidence that bone traits are co-adapted during ontogeny so that the sets of traits together satisfy physiological loading demands. However, certain sets of traits are expected to perform poorly under extreme load conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Previous data from inbred mouse strains suggested that biological processes within bone co-adapt morphological and compositional traits during ontogeny to satisfy physiological loading demands. Similar work in young adult humans showed that cortical tissue from slender tibias was stiffer, less ductile, and more susceptible to accumulating damage. Here we tested whether the relationships among morphology and tissue level mechanical properties were the result of biological processes that co-adapt physical traits, similar to those observed for the mouse skeleton.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cross-sectional morphology, bone slenderness (Tt.Ar/Le), and tissue level mechanical properties were measured from tibias from 14 female (22-46 yr old) and 17 male (17-46 yr old) donors. Physical bone traits measured included tissue density, ash content, water content, porosity, and the area fractions of osteonal, interstitial, and circumferential lamellar tissues. Bivariate relationships among traits were determined using linear regression analysis. A path analysis was conducted to test the hypothesis that Tt.Ar/Le is functionally related to mineralization (ash content) and the proportion of total area occupied by cortical bone.

RESULTS

Ash content correlated negatively with several traits including Tt.Ar/Le and marrow area, indicating that slender bones were constructed of tissue with higher mineralization. Path analysis revealed that slender tibias were compensated by higher mineralization and a greater area fraction of bone.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that bone adapts by varying the relative amount of cortical bone within the diaphysis and by varying matrix composition. This co-adaptation is expected to lead to a particular set of traits that is sufficiently stiff and strong to support daily loads. However, increases in mineralization result in a more brittle and damageable material that would be expected to perform poorly under extreme load conditions. Therefore, focusing attention on sets of traits and the relationship among traits may advance our understanding of how genetic and environmental factors influence bone fragility.

Ontogenetic structural and material variations in ovine calcanei: a model for interpreting bone adaptation

Experimental models are needed for resolving relative influences of genetic, epigenetic, and nonheritable functionally induced (extragenetic) factors in the emergence of developmental adaptations in limb bones of larger mammals. We examined regional/ontogenetic morphologic variations in sheep calcanei, which exhibit marked heterogeneity in structural and material organization by skeletal maturity. Cross-sections and lateral radiographs of an ontogenetic series of domesticated sheep calcanei (fetal to adult) were examined for variations in biomechanically important structural (cortical thickness and trabecular architecture) and material (percent ash and predominant collagen fiber orientation) characteristics. Results showed delayed development of variations in cortical thickness and collagen fiber orientation, which correlate with extragenetic factors, including compression/tension strains of habitual bending in respective dorsal/plantar cortices and load-related thresholds for modeling/remodeling activities. In contrast, the appearance of trabecular arches in utero suggests strong genetic/epigenetic influences. These stark spatial/temporal variations in sheep calcanei provide a compelling model for investigating causal mechanisms that mediate this construction. In view of these findings, it is also suggested that the conventional distinction between genetic and epigenetic factors in limb bone development be expanded into three categories: genetic, epigenetic, and extragenetic factors.

Ontogeny of bone strain: the zygomatic arch in pigs

At the time of weaning, infant animals have little experience with hard food, and thus their skulls are not likely to be epigenetically adapted for the loads imposed by mastication. We examined bone strain in the zygomatic arch of 4-week-old weanling piglets. Functional strains in piglets differed from those previously reported for older pigs in that the squamosal bone was not bent in the horizontal plane and the principal tensile strain on the zygomatic bone did not correspond to the direction of masseter muscle pull. Strain patterns were more variable in piglets than in older pigs. In older pigs, masticatory strains can be reproduced by stimulating the masseter muscles. When the piglet masseter was stimulated, strain patterns were more similar to those of older pigs, but shear strain magnitudes were the largest yet recorded from mammalian skull bones, up to 4000 muepsilon. To put these findings in the context of skeletal adaptation, 45 dry skulls, including some animals from the strain study, were measured. Reduced major axis regressions indicated that the infant arch was rounder in cross section and straighter than that of older animals. With growth, the arch became dorsoventrally higher, while mediolateral thickness decreased in the squamosal bone. Overall, these changes should make strain more predictable, explaining the lower variability in older animals. Other factors likely to be important in causing unique strain regimes in piglets include (1) unfamiliarity with hard food, (2) greater importance of muscles other than the same-side masseter and (3) greater proximity of molariform teeth to the arch. Collectively, these data indicate that the skeleton is not pre-adapted for specific functional loads.

A quantitative study of the morphological development and bacterial colonisation of the gut of the tammar wallaby Macropus eugenii eugenii and brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula during in-pouch development

We compared the rates of change of various morphological parameters of the stomach, small intestine, caecum and colon of tammar wallabies and brushtail possums with body mass during in-pouch development. These were correlated with changes in the numbers of bacterial species in the various gut segments. In the pouch-young of both species, the wet tissue masses of all gut segments increased with body mass in a positively allometric manner (i.e. with a body mass exponent > 1), suggesting that the mass of each component was disproportionately low at birth, but increased disproportionately rapidly postnatally. However, the lengths of the wallaby stomach and small intestine scaled isometrically with respect to body mass (i.e. with a body mass exponent around 0.33), which may indicate that the shape of these components changes to the adult form during early neonatal development. Conversely, the length of the caecum and colon of both wallabies and possums scaled in a positively allometric manner with respect to body mass, showing area to volume compensation. This may indicate a more general pattern of disproportionately rapid postnatal enlargement in areas that are distal to the principal sites of neonatal digestion (i.e. the stomach). The numbers of bacterial species present in the various gastrointestinal segments of both species were low in animals aged 100 days or less but there was a significant increase in microbial diversity in the caecum of brushtail possums aged over 100 days. The possum caecum also showed the greatest rate of increase in wet tissue mass relative to body mass. It is postulated that caecal development may act as a nidus for establishment of communities of commensal microflora in the developing marsupial.

In Vivo Bone Strain and Ontogenetic Growth Patterns in Relation to Life‐History Strategies and Performance in Two Vertebrate Taxa: Goats and Emu

This study examined ontogenetic patterns of limb loading, bone strains, and relative changes in bone geometry to explore the relationship between in vivo mechanics and size-related changes in the limb skeleton of two vertebrate taxa. Despite maintaining similar relative limb loads during ontogeny, bone strain magnitudes in the goat radius and emu tibiotarsus generally increased. However, while the strain increases in the emu tibiotarsus were mostly insignificant, strains within the radii of adult goats were two to four times greater than in young goats. The disparity between ontogenetic strain increases in these taxa resulted from differences in ontogenetic scaling patterns of the cross-sectional bone geometry. While the cross-sectional and second moments of area scaled with negative allometry in the goat radius, these measures were not significantly different from isometry in the emu tibiotarsus. Although the juveniles of both taxa exhibited lower strains and higher safety factors than the adults, the radii of the young goats were more robust relative to the adult goats than were the tibiotarsi of the young compared with adult emu. Differences in ontogenetic growth and strain patterns in the limb bones examined likely result from different threat avoidance strategies and selection pressures in the juveniles of these two taxa.

Functional trade-offs in the limb bones of dogs selected for running versus fighting

The physical demands of rapid and economical running differ from the demands of fighting in ways that may prevent the simultaneous evolution of optimal performance in these two behaviors. Here, we test an hypothesis of functional trade-off in limb bones by measuring mechanical properties of limb bones in two breeds of domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris L.) that have undergone intense artificial selection for running (greyhound) and fighting (pit bull) performance. The bones were loaded to fracture in three-point static bending. To correct for the effect of shear, we estimated the shear stress in the cross section and added energy due to shear stress to the tensile energy. The proximal limb bones of the pit bulls differed from those of the greyhounds in having relatively larger second moments of area of mid-diaphyseal cross sections and in having more circular cross-sectional shape. The pit bulls exhibited lower stresses at yield, had lower elastic moduli and failed at much higher levels of work. The stiffness of the tissue of the humerus, radius, femur and tibia was 1.5-2.4-fold greater in the greyhounds than in the pit bulls. These bones from the pit bulls absorbed 1.9-2.6-fold more energy before failure than did those of the greyhounds. These differences between breeds were not observed in the long bones of the feet, metacarpals and metatarsals. Nevertheless, the results of this analysis suggest that selection for high-speed running is associated with the evolution of relatively stiff, brittle limb bones, whereas selection for fighting performance leads to the evolution of limb bones with relatively high resistance to failure.

Relationship between bone morphology and bone quality in male tibias: implications for stress fracture risk

Biomechanical properties were assessed from the tibias of 17 adult males 17-46 years of age. Tissue-level mechanical properties varied with bone size. Narrower tibias were comprised of tissue that was more brittle and more prone to accumulating damage compared with tissue from wider tibias.

INTRODUCTION

A better understanding of the factors contributing to stress fractures is needed to identify new prevention strategies that will reduce fracture incidence. Having a narrow (i.e., more slender) tibia relative to body mass has been shown to be a major predictor of stress fracture risk and fragility in male military recruits and male athletes. The intriguing possibility that slender bones, like those shown in animal models, may be composed of more damageable material has not been considered in the human skeleton.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Polar moment of inertia, section modulus, and antero-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) widths were determined for tibial diaphyses from 17 male donors 17-46 years of age. A slenderness index was defined as the inverse ratio of the section modulus to tibia length and body weight. Eight prismatic cortical bone samples were generated from each tibia, and tissue-level mechanical properties including modulus, strength, total energy, postyield strain, and tissue damageability were measured by four-point bending from monotonic (n = 4/tibia) and damage accumulation (n = 4/tibia) test methods. Partial correlation coefficients were determined between each geometrical parameter and each tissue-level mechanical property while taking age into consideration.

RESULTS

Significant correlations were observed between tibial morphology and the mechanical properties that characterized tissue brittleness and damageability. Positive correlations were observed between measures of bone size (AP width) and measures of tissue ductility (postyield strain, total energy), and negative correlations were observed between bone size (moment of inertia, section modulus) and tissue modulus.

CONCLUSIONS

The correlation analysis suggested that bone morphology could be used as a predictor of tissue fragility and stress fracture risk. The average mechanical properties of cortical tissue varied as a function of the overall size of the bone. Therefore, under extreme loading conditions (e.g., military training), variation in bone quality parameters related to damageability may be a contributing factor to the increased risk of stress fracture for individuals with more slender bones.

Predicting long bone loading from cross-sectional geometry

Long bone loading histories are commonly evaluated using a beam model by calculating cross-sectional second moments of areas (SMAs). Without in vivo strain data, SMA analyses commonly make two explicit or implicit assumptions. First, while it has long been known that axial compression superimposed on bending shifts neutral axes away from cross-sectional area centroids, most analyses assume that cross-sectional properties calculated through the area centroid approximate cross-sectional strength. Second, the orientation of maximum bending rigidity is often assumed to reflect the orientation of peak or habitual bending forces the bone experiences. These assumptions are tested in sheep in which rosette strain gauges mounted at three locations around the tibia and metatarsal midshafts measured in vivo strains during treadmill running at 1.5 m/sec. Calculated normal strain distributions confirm that the neutral axis of bending does not run through the midshaft centroid. In these animals, orientations of the principal centroidal axes around which maximum SMAs (Imax) are calculated are not in the same planes in which the bones experienced bending. Cross-sectional properties calculated using centroidal axes have substantial differences in magnitude (up to 55%) but high correlations in pattern compared to cross-sectional properties calculated around experimentally determined neutral axes. Thus interindividual comparisons of cross-sectional properties calculated from centroidal axes may be useful in terms of pattern, but are subject to high errors in terms of absolute values. In addition, cross-sectional properties do not necessarily provide reliable data on the orientations of loads to which bones are subjected.

Relationships of loading history and structural and material characteristics of bone: Development of the mule deer calcaneus

If a bone's morphologic organization exhibits the accumulated effects of its strain history, then the relative contributions of a given strain stimulus to a bone's development may be inferred from a bone's hierarchical organization. The artiodactyl calcaneus is a short cantilever, loaded habitually in bending, with prevalent compression in the cranial (Cr) cortex, tension in the caudal (Cd) cortex, and shear in the medial and lateral cortices (i.e., neutral axis). Artiodactyl calcanei demonstrate unusually heterogeneous structural and material organization between these cortices. This study examines potential relationships between developmental morphologic variations and the functional strain distribution of the deer calcaneus. One calcaneus was obtained from each of 36 (fetus to adult) wild deer. Predominant collagen fiber orientation (CFO), microstructural characteristics, mineral content (% ash), and geometric parameters were determined from transversely cut segments. Radiographs were examined for arched trabeculae, which may reflect tension/compression stress trajectories. Results showed that cross-sectional shape changes with age from quasi-circular to quasi-elliptical, with the long axis in the cranial-caudal direction of habitual bending. Cranial ("compression") cortical thickness increased at a greater rate than the Cd ("tension") cortex. Fetal bones exhibited arched trabeculae. Percent ash was not uniform (Cr > Cd), and this disparity increased with age (absolute differences: 2.5% fetuses, 4.3% adults). Subadult bones showed progressively more secondary osteons and osteocyte lacunae in the Cr cortex, but the Cd cortex tended to have more active remodeling in the subadult and adult bones. Nonuniform Cr:Cd CFO patterns first consistently appear in the subadults, and are correlated with secondary bone formation and habitual strain mode. Medial and lateral cortices in these groups exhibited elongated secondary osteons. These variations may represent "strain-mode-specific" (i.e., tension, compression, shear) adaptations. The heterogeneous organization may also be influenced by variations in longitudinal strain magnitude (highest in the Cr cortex) and principal strain direction-oblique in medial-lateral cortices (where shear strains also predominate). Other factors such as local reductions in longitudinal strain may influence the increased remodeling activity of the Cd cortex. Some structural variations, such as arched trabeculae, that are established early in ontogeny may be strongly influenced by genetic- or epigenetic-derived processes. Material variations, such as secondary osteon population densities and CFO, which appear later, may be products of extragenetic factors, including microdamage.

Seasonal hyperphagia does not reduce digestive efficiency in an Arctic grazer

Muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) consume fibrous plants that grow rapidly over the short Arctic summer. We studied responses of eight castrated male muskoxen to a diet of grass hay and mineral supplements during spring, autumn, and winter. Animals gained body mass in spring (239+/-39 kg) as body fat content increased from 26% to 38% of ingesta-free mass in winter without changes in lean mass and protein. Intakes of dry matter (DM) increased by 74% between spring and autumn as digestible energy increased from 554 to 923 kJ kg(-0.75) d(-1) during mass gain. Digestibility of cellulose (72%-76%) was not affected by increasing food intake between spring and autumn but was reduced to 65% in winter. Digestibility of nitrogen compounds was 61%-66%, even though intake increased by 134% between spring and autumn. Excess dietary nitrogen from hay and supplements increased urea concentrations in plasma and urine. High loads of solutes such as potassium did not affect plasma or urinary osmolality but were associated with increased rates of glomerular filtration and urinary excretion. Low intakes of sodium from grasses may limit intake and digestion during summer, but high food intakes can support deposition of nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, copper, and zinc in body tissue even when dietary concentrations are low. Seasonal increases in digestive and metabolic functions allow muskoxen to rapidly accumulate energy and nutrients in body tissue during the short season of plant growth.

Ontogenetic and regional morphologic variations in the turkey ulna diaphysis: implications for functional adaptation of cortical bone

This study examines relationships between bone morphology and mechanically mediated strain/fluid-flow patterns in an avian species. Using mid-diaphyseal transverse sections of domestic turkey ulnae (from 11 subadults and 11 adults), we quantified developmental changes in predominant collagen fiber orientation (CFO), mineral content (%ash), and microstructure in cortical octants or quadrants (i.e., %ash). Geometric parameters were examined using whole mid-diaphyseal cross-sections. The ulna undergoes habitual bending and torsion, and demonstrates nonuniform matrix fluid-flow patterns, and high circumferential strain gradients along the neutral axis (cranial-caudal) region at mid-diaphysis. The current results showed significant porosity differences: 1) greater osteocyte lacuna densities (N.Lac/Ar) (i.e., "non-vascular porosity") in the caudal and cranial cortices in both groups, 2) greater N.Lac/Ar in the pericortex vs. endocortex in mature bones, and 3) greater nonlacunar porosity (i.e., "vascular porosity") in the endocortex vs. pericortex in mature bones. Vascular and nonvascular porosities were not correlated. There were no secondary osteons in subadults. In adults, the highest secondary osteon population densities and lowest %ash occurred in the ventral-caudal, caudal, and cranial cortices, where shear strains, circumferential strain gradients, and fluid displacements are highest. Changes in thickness of the caudal cortex explained the largest proportion of the age-related increase in cranial-caudal breadth; the thickness of other cortices (dorsal, ventral, and cranial) exhibited smaller changes. Only subadult bones exhibited CFO patterns corresponding to habitual tension (ventral) and compression (dorsal). These CFO variations may be adaptations for differential mechanical requirements in "strain-mode-specific" loading. The more uniform oblique-to-transverse CFO patterns in adult bones may represent adaptations for shear strains produced by torsional loading, which is presumably more prevalent in adults. The micro- and ultrastructural heterogeneities may influence strain and fluid-flow dynamics, which are considered proximate signals in bone adaptation.