Physiological stress responses in defensive individuals: age and sex matter

Running away from phonological ambiguity, we stumble upon our words: Laboratory induced slips show differences between highly and lowly defensive people

Introduction

Freud proposed that slips of the tongue, including apparently simple ones, always have a sense and constitute « a half-success and a half-failure » compromise resulting from defensive mechanisms.

Material and methods

A total of 55 subjects participated in a French adaptation of the Spoonerisms of Laboratory Induced Predisposition or SLIP-technique including 32 “neutral” and 32 taboo spoonerisms and measures of defensiveness. In accordance with a psychoanalytical and empirically supported distinction, we considered two kinds of defenses: elaborative or primary process and inhibitory or secondary process defenses, which were operationalized with the GeoCat and the Phonological-Nothing (PN) WordList, respectively. The GeoCat is a validated measure of primary process mentation and the PN WordList was shown to measure the defensive avoidance of language ambiguity.

Results

Participants produced 37 slips, with no significant difference in the number of “neutral” and taboo slips. The GeoCat and the N/PN parameters explained 30% of the variance in the production of parapraxes, confirming the defensive logics of slips. When dividing the population into lowly and highly defensive participants (with the Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability scale), primary process mentation appears as a baseline default defense, but only highly defensive participants mobilize an additional inhibitory secondary process type of defense. Taking into account the a priori difference between taboo and “neutral” parapraxes, highly defensive participants made 2.7 times more taboo parapraxes than lowly defensive participants. However, if “neutral” parapraxes in both subgroups followed the same logic as the total group of parapraxes (significant contribution of primary process mentation in lowly defensives and of primary and secondary process mentation in highly defensives), these measures had no contribution to explain the occurrence of taboo parapraxes.

Conclusion

We propose that Motley et al.’s prearticulatory editor, ensuring the censorship over taboo parapraxes, is an external instance of inhibition, proximal to uttering, equivalent to the censorship between the systems Preconscious and Conscious in Freud’s metapsychology. By contrast, the defenses measured in this research are internal, intimate control systems, probing for the censorship between the systems Unconscious and Preconscious, this is, for repression. This study contributes to support a psychodynamic explanatory model for the production of parapraxes.

The cost of pleasing social expectations: A serial mediation of Israeli mothers’ anxiety and depression in the relationship between defensiveness and parental self-efficacy

In a social atmosphere of expecting mothers to sacrifice their own wellbeing for the sake of their children's wellbeing, pregnant women are compelled to find their stance in relation to these sets of expectations. The current study aimed at exploring the relationship between Israeli women's tendency to meet social expectations, that is, defensiveness at the end of pregnancy and parental self-efficacy five months postnatal, and at examining the role of anxiety and depression two months postnatal in this relationship. Participants included 238 Israeli women who completed self-reported questionnaires at three time points: during the third trimester of pregnancy (T1), two months after giving birth (T2), and three months later (T3). The questionnaires focused on background variables, defensiveness (T1), anxiety (T2), depression (T2), and parental self-efficacy (T3). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess a serial mediating model, which revealed that defensiveness (T1) impacts parental self-efficacy (T3). Additionally, anxiety (T2) and depression (T2) mediate this relationship, while controlling for age, education, and income (T1). The findings suggest that in the relationship between defensiveness at the end of pregnancy and parental self-efficacy five months postnatal, anxiety and depression served as the detrimental mechanism. The findings are discussed considering self-theories.

The associations of hostility and defensiveness with telomere length are influenced by sex and health status

Background

Shorter telomere length (TL) may indicate premature cellular aging and increased risk for disease. While there is substantial evidence for shorter TL in individuals suffering from psychiatric disorders, data is scarce on maladaptive personality traits related to coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of TL with hostility and defensiveness in individuals with CAD or other non-cardiovascular illnesses and whether associations were moderated by CAD status and sex.

Methods

One thousand thirty-six individuals (M_age = 65.40 ± 6.73 years) with and without CAD completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the Cook–Medley Hostility Scale. Relative TL was measured via quantitative polymerase chain reaction of total genomic DNA samples. Analyses involved hierarchical regressions on TL, performed separately for hostility and defensiveness, controlling for pertinent sociodemographic, behavioural, and medical risk factors. Separate analyses were performed on 25 healthy participants.

Results

A hostility by sex interaction emerged (β = − .08, p = .006) in the patient groups, where greater hostility was associated with shorter TL in women only (p < .01). A Defensiveness by CAD status interaction (β = − .06, p = .049) revealed longer TL in more defensive CAD patients only (p = .06). In healthy men, shorter TL was observed in those with greater defensiveness (β = .52, p = .006) but lower hostility (β = − .43, p = .049).

Conclusion

Hostility and defensiveness are differentially associated with TL as a function of sex and health status. The implication of these results for health remains to be determined, but propose an additional pathway through which the effect of maladaptive personality traits may contribute to CV and other disease.

Blood pressure responses of defensive hostile women when facing a real stress task

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the importance of the combination of the hostility and defensiveness variables as psychosocial factors that predict the risk of cardiovascular dysfunction. We examined the impact of a stressful situation on blood pressure responses, using a continuous psychophysiological assessment approach.

DESIGN

We measured the evolution of these responses over three experimental phases (adaptation, task and recovery), also considering a minute-by-minute analysis within each phase.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

We used the Cook-Medley Hostility Scale and the Social Desirability Questionnaire to form four groups (high hostility and high defensiveness, high hostility and low defensiveness, low hostility and high defensiveness, and low hostility and low defensiveness).

RESULTS

We expected the group of hostile defensive women to record higher activation (task phase: an academic exam) and slower habituation (recovery phase) compared to the other groups. The results confirmed our hypothesis, as the profile of the hostile defensive individuals was one of constant or sensitization during the task phase, while during the recovery phase those individuals underwent a slow recovery.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, it can be indicated that the low hostility and low defensive group is the most adaptive, as recorded very little activation in response, and rapid recovery.

Maximal tachycardia and high cardiac strain during night shifts of emergency physicians

PURPOSE

To compare tachycardia and cardiac strain between 24-hour shifts (24hS) and 14-hour night shifts (14hS) in emergency physicians (EPs), and to investigate key factors influencing tachycardia and cardiac strain.

METHODS

We monitored heart rate (HR) with Holter-ECG in a shift-randomized trial comparing a 24hS, a 14hS, and a control day, within a potential for 19 EPs. We also measured 24-h HR the third day (D3) after both shifts. We measured perceived stress by visual analog scale and the number of life-and-death emergencies.

RESULTS

The 17 EPs completing the whole protocol reached maximal HR (180.9 ± 6.9 bpm) during both shifts. Minutes of tachycardia >100 bpm were higher in 24hS (208.3 ± 63.8) than in any other days (14hS: 142.3 ± 36.9; D3/14hS: 64.8 ± 31.4; D3/24hS: 57.6 ± 19.1; control day: 39.2 ± 11.6 min, p < .05). Shifts induced a cardiac strain twice higher than in days not involving patients contact. Each life-and-death emergency enhanced 26 min of tachycardia ≥100 bpm (p < .001), 7 min ≥ 110 bpm (p < .001), 2 min ≥ 120 bpm (p < .001) and 19 min of cardiac strain ≥30% (p = .014). Stress was associated with greater duration of tachycardia ≥100, 110 and 120 bpm, and of cardiac strain ≥30% (p < .001).

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated several incidences of maximal HR during shifts combined with a high cardiac strain. Duration of tachycardia were the highest in 24hS and lasted several hours. Such values are comparable to those of workers exposed to high physical demanding tasks or heat. Therefore, we suggest that EPs limit their exposure to 24hS. We, furthermore, demonstrated benefits of HR monitoring for identifying stressful events. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01874704.

Psychological Profiles in the Prediction of Leukocyte Telomere Length in Healthy Individuals

BACKGROUND

Shorter telomere length (TL) may signal premature cellular aging and increased risk for disease. While depression and psychosocial stress have been associated with shorter telomeres, other psychological risk factors for cardiovascular disease have received less attention.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the association between TL and psychological risk factors (symptoms of anxiety and depression, hostility and defensiveness traits) for heart disease, and to examine whether chronological age and sex moderate the associations observed.

METHODS

132 healthy men and women (Mage = 45.34 years) completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory II, The Beck Anxiety Inventory and the Cook-Medley Hostility Scale. Relative TL was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of total genomic DNA samples. A series of hierarchical linear regressions were performed controlling for pertinent covariates.

RESULTS

Shorter TL was observed among individuals high in defensiveness (β = -.221) and depressive symptoms (β = -.213), as well as in those with less hostility (β =.256) and anxiety (β =.220)(all Ps<.05). Psychological variables explained 19% of the variance over and above that explained by covariates (age, sex, exercise, alcohol consumption, systemic inflammation, and 24-hr mean arterial pressure). Age moderated the relation between TL and defensiveness (β =.179, p =.03). Sex did not influence any of the relations.

CONCLUSIONS

Telomere length is associated with psychological burden though the direction of effect differs depending on the psychological variables under study. Further research is needed to determine the reasons for and implications of these seemingly contradictory findings.

Trait Hostility and Acute Inflammatory Responses to Stress in the Laboratory

Hostility has been associated with higher basal levels of inflammation. The present study evaluated the association of hostility with acute stress-induced changes in inflammatory activity. One hundred and ninety-nine healthy men and women, aged 19–64 years, were exposed to a stress protocol involving four interpersonal stressors. Participants completed the Cook-Medley Hostility questionnaire and provided two blood samples for the measurement of inflammatory biomarkers (CRP, Il-6, MPO, TNF-α, MCP-1, Il-8, Il-10, and Il-18), prior to and following exposure to a standardized stress protocol. In univariate analyses, hostility was associated with significantly higher TNF-α, but lower Il-8 and Il-18 values post-stress, though only Il-8 remained significant after controlling for baseline differences. In multivariate analyses, a significant Age by Hostility interaction emerged for Il-6, while sex moderated the relation between hostility and Il-10 reactivity. Following stress, hostility was associated with greater pro-inflammatory Il-6 activity among younger individuals and to decreased anti-inflammatory Il-10 activity in women. Future research is needed to replicate these findings and to evaluate their implication for disease.

Sex differences in healthy human heart rate variability: A meta-analysis

The present meta-analysis aimed to quantify current evidence on sex differences in the autonomic control of the heart, indexed by measures of heart rate variability (HRV) in healthy human subjects. An extensive search of the literature yielded 2020 titles and abstracts, of which 172 provided sufficient reporting of sex difference in HRV. Data from 63,612 participants (31,970 females) were available for analysis. Meta-analysis yielded a total of 1154 effect size estimates (k) across 50 different measures of HRV in a cumulated total of 296,247 participants. Females showed a significantly lower mean RR interval and standard deviation of RR intervals (SDNN). The power spectral density of HRV in females is characterized by significantly less total power that contains significantly greater high- (HF) and less low-frequency (LF) power. This is further reflected by a lower LF/HF ratio. Meta-regression revealed significant effects of age, respiration control and the length of recording available for analysis. Although women showed greater mean heart rate, they showed greater vagal activity indexed by HF power of HRV. Underlying mechanisms of these findings are discussed.

The relation between hostility and concurrent levels of inflammation is sex, age, and measure dependent

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Hostility may be associated with greater systemic inflammation. However, contradictory evidence exists. Certain individuals or dimensions of hostility may be more susceptible to these effects. Main and interactive effects of hostility with sex and/or age were evaluated on markers of inflammation, independently of traditional risk factors for coronary artery disease.

METHODS

199 healthy men (81) and women (118), aged 20-64 years (M=41 ± 11 years) were recruited. Hostility was assessed using the Cook-Medley Hostility Inventory (CMHo) and ecological momentary assessments (EMA) of quarrelsome behavior and angry affect in daily living. Blood samples were drawn to measure inflammatory activity (Il-6, TNF-α, hsCRP, Il-8, Il-10, Il-18, MCP-1) and lipid oxidation (Myeloperoxidase; MPO). Correlations and hierarchical regression analyses were performed controlling for pertinent behavioral, psychological, medical, and socio-demographic factors.

RESULTS

Significant univariate associations emerged between CMHo and Il-6, TNF-α, MCP-1 (p<.05). Hierarchical regressions showed interactions of hostility with sex (Il-6, TNF-α; p<.05) and age (hsCRP, Il-6, TNF-α; p<.05). For example, in simple slope analyses, hostility was positively related to TNF-α in women (b=0.009, p=0.006) but not men. Greater hostility was also related to greater Il-6 levels among younger women (b=. 027, p=0.000).

CONCLUSION

Hostility, particularly cynical hostility, may be detrimental to (younger) women. The TNF-α, Il-6, CRP triad appears vulnerable to psychological and behavioral factors, and may be one mechanism by which cynical hostility (CMHo) contributes to increased cardiovascular risk in women. Prospective research is needed to verify this.

Sex-specific interaction effects of age, occupational status, and workplace stress on psychiatric symptoms and allostatic load among healthy Montreal workers

Socio-demographics and workplace stress may affect men and women differently. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess sex-specific interactions among age, occupational status, and workplace Demand-Control-Support (D-C-S) factors in relation to psychiatric symptoms and allostatic load levels representing multi-systemic "wear and tear". It was hypothesized that beyond main effects, D-C-S factors would be moderated by occupational status and age in sex-specific directions predictive of subjective psychiatric symptoms and objective physiological dysregulations. Participants included healthy male (n = 81) and female (n = 118) Montreal workers aged 20 to 64 years (Men: M = 39.4 years, SD = 11.3; Women: M = 42.8 years, SD = 11.38). The Job Content Questionnaire was administered to assess workplace D-C-S factors that included psychological demands, decisional latitude, and social support. Occupational status was coded using the Nam--Powers--Boyd system derived from the Canadian census. Psychiatric symptoms were assessed using the Beck Anxiety Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory II. Sex-specific allostatic load indices were calculated based on fifteen biomarkers. Regression analyses revealed that higher social support was associated with less depressive symptoms in middle aged (p = 0.033) and older men (p = 0.027). Higher occupational status was associated with higher allostatic load levels for men (p = 0.035), while the reverse occurred for women (p = 0.048). Women with lower occupational status but with higher decision latitude had lower allostatic load levels, as did middle-aged (p = 0.031) and older women (p = 0.003) with higher psychological demands. In summary, age and occupational status moderated workplace stress in sex-specific ways that have occupational health implications.

The metabolic costs of hostility in healthy adult men and women: cross-sectional and prospective analyses

BACKGROUND

Hostility is associated with altered metabolic activity but little research has examined sex and/or age differences using a global index of metabolic dysfunction or examined different aspects of hostility.

METHODS

The moderating effect of sex and age on the associations between three aspects of hostility (cynical attitude, angry affect, quarrelsome behavior in daily living) and metabolic burden (number of metabolic parameters in the higher quartile) were evaluated in 188 healthy men and women (M(age)=41; SD=11.34). Three years later, metabolic burden was measured again in 133 participants.

RESULTS

At study onset, quarrelsome behavior was associated with greater metabolic burden in men and women (Beta=.144; p<.05). After 3 yrs, cynical hostility predicted increased metabolic burden among mid-age and older individuals (b=.013 and .046 respectively; p<.001).

CONCLUSION

The aspect of hostility that is most closely associated with metabolic burden depends on the age of the participants and whether measures are concurrent or prospective.

Cognitive depressive symptoms associated with delayed heart rate recovery following interpersonal stress in healthy men and women

Among cardiac patients, research suggests that somatic depressive symptoms are more strongly associated with altered cardiovascular responses to stress than cognitive depressive symptoms. This study sought to determine whether this was also the case in healthy individuals. One hundred and ninety-nine adults from the community completed the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) and underwent psychological laboratory stressors while their blood pressure, heart rate, and heart rate variability were monitored. A cognitive-affective factor and somatic-affective factor were identified within the BDI-II, but only the cognitive factor was associated with reduced heart rate recovery following the stressors in multivariate analyses examining both factors simultaneously. This suggests that cognitive depressive symptoms may be more strongly related to altered stress physiology following psychological stressors.

The big chill: interpersonal coldness and emotion-labeling skills

Interpersonally cold (relative to warm) individuals may be less skilled in inferring the emotional states of others, a factor that should contribute to their poorer social relationships. Systematic support for this hypothesis was obtained in 4 studies (total N = 434 undergraduates) involving diverse emotion- and affect-decoding tasks. Specifically, relatively cold individuals exhibited lower accuracy in decoding emotional facial expressions (Study 1), in labeling the emotions of others from audio and video clips (Study 2), in predicting the emotions of others from social scenario descriptions (Study 3), and in the normative accuracy of their word evaluations (Study 4). Altogether, the results demonstrate that cold individuals appear broadly deficient in linking emotion and affect to relevant environmental stimuli. Implications of the findings for understanding the nature and correlates of interpersonal coldness are discussed.