Toward a Feminist Understanding of Women and Power

Psychology of Women Quarterly: Citation Network Analysis of its Landscape and Evolution

Psychology of Women Quarterly (PWQ) is a leading outlet for feminist psychology research. To elucidate the interrelations of PWQ publications over time, we conducted a citation network analysis of its 2,747 articles and 4,517 citation links. Of the 16 citation clusters that emerged, many echoed key elements of PWQ's scope. These included Cluster 1: feminist consciousness and sexism; Cluster 2: body image and objectification; Cluster 3: feminist psychology, epistemology, and methodology; Cluster 4: gender and educational and occupational experiences; Cluster 5: rape and sexual assault; Cluster 6: power and violence in close relationships; Cluster 7: sexual harassment and workplace discrimination; and Cluster 8: women and power with attention to race and nation. Areas of citation disconnection revealed avenues for resisting citation silos and advancing pantheoretical feminist frameworks on the continuum of patriarchal violence. Small and discontinued clusters were areas ripe for feminist revisiting (e.g., reproductive justice). PWQ articles were cited in an increasing number and breadth of journals over time. These findings can inform authors, reviewers, and editors to advance the next decades of scholarship in PWQ in ways that resist citation silos, revive research on critical domains of women's lives, and foster the feminist edge of our scholarship.

Weighting power by preference eliminates gender differences

Power can be applied in different domains (e.g., politics, work, romantic relationships, family etc.), however, we do not always reflect on which domains we have power in and how important power in these domains is. A dominant idea is that men have more power than women. This notion may be biased because the concept of power is associated with public life. We introduce the concept of preference-weighted power (PWP), a measure of power that includes different domains in life, weighted by the domains’ subjective importance. Two studies investigated power from this perspective. In Study 1, participants generated words related to power, which were quantified/categorized by latent semantic analysis to develop a semantic measure of the power construct. In Study 2, we computed a PWP index by weighting the participants' self-rated power in different power domains with the importance of having power in that domain. Together the studies suggest that men have more perceived power in the public domain, however, this domain has a lower preference weighting than the private domain where women have more power than men. Finally, when preferences for power in different domains were considered, no gender differences were observed. These results emphasize gender difference in different domains and may change how we perceive men’s and women’s power in our society.

Terms of empowerment: of conservation or communities?

In this era of socially-oriented biodiversity conservation and resource management, practitioners and scholars all too often invoke unclear and imprecise claims of empowerment to describe changing relations between people and resources. Empowerment is an important indicator of conservation success and social transformation. Yet, when scholars and practitioners fail to adequately conceptualize empowerment, they run the risk of undermining the importance of local involvement and capacity building to achieve biodiversity conservation. Here we explore the many ways empowerment has been conceptualized in conservation. We root our commentary in the history of the use of empowerment in conservation from these diverse perspectives. We then present examples of different meanings, measurements and outcomes ascribed to empowerment. We conclude with suggestions for harnessing empowerment for the benefit of conservationists and communities alike. Because empowerment has the potential to improve resource management outcomes and local livelihoods, we recommend building an adaptive empowerment assessment framework to assist with its deployment where it is most needed. Although empowerment goals in conservation can guide practitioners and scholars to engage with communities in transparent, meaningful and lasting ways, conservation needs a critical approach that builds from an appreciation of the nuances underlying the purpose and power of empowerment for conservation.

From Spatial to Social Asymmetry

According to the spatial agency bias model, in Western cultures agentic targets are envisaged as facing and acting rightward, in line with writing direction. In four studies of Italian participants, we examined the symbolic association between agency and the rightward direction (Study 1, N = 96), its spontaneous activation when attributing agency to female and male targets (Study 2, N = 80) or when judging the authenticity of photographs of men and women (Study 3, N = 57), and its possible relation to stereotype endorsement (Study 4, N = 80). In Study 4, we used a conditioning paradigm in which participants learned a counterstereotypical new association; we developed a novel measure to assess the association between gender and spatial direction, namely, the spatial association task. Participants envisaged and cognitively processed male and female targets in line with the spatial agency bias model and reported lower benevolent sexism after learning a new counterstereotypical spatial association. Our findings raise awareness about the biased use of space (and its consequences) in the representation of women and men, so that all people, and especially communicators and policy makers, can actively intervene to promote gender equality. Additional online materials for this article are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684316676045

Power Can Bias Impression Processes: Stereotyping Subordinates by Default and by Design

Powerholders may engage in two stereotyping processes: (a) by default, inattention to stereotype-inconsistent information, due to lack of dependency, and (b) by design, effortful attention to stereotype-consistent information, due to explicit control. Study 1 manipulated control (not dependency) over internship applicants; powerful decision-makers increased attention to stereotypic attributes, consistent with stereotyping by design. Study 2 measured differences in trait dominance as an analog to situational control, replicating Study 1. Study 3 separately manipulated perceiver control and dependency; powerful perceivers increased attention to powerless targets’ stereotypic attributes (by design) and also decreased attention to counter-stereotypic attributes (by default). Study 4 compared powerful perceivers’ ratings of potential subordinates to their own prior ratings of target categories and target traits. Relative to the powerless, powerful perceivers’ impressions were based significantly less on target traits, supporting the attention results.

Double Relative Deprivation: Combining the Personal and Political

Double relative deprivation, which has been virtually ignored in research on relative deprivation, was expected to predict women s collective action over and above egoistic and collective deprivation. The role of sociopolitical resources in perceiving deprivation and participation in action was also investigated. Female students (N = 164) completed a questionnaire designed to assess their perceptions of egoistic, collective, and double relative deprivation (defined as the interaction between egoistic and collective deprivation), and resource availability and participation in collective action. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that double relative deprivation predicted collective action over and above egoistic and collective relative deprivation, and that resource availability also uniquely predicted action. Implications for expanding conceptual and operational definitions of these constructs are discussed.

Reflections on a Feminist Research Project

This article describes the group process in a feminist research project on resiliency in adult women survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Memos written by members of the research team that were content analyzed independently provided the major source of data. Researchers' subjectivity, members' expectations for intimacy, and the role of power were examined. We describe how group members learned that taking the researcher's subjectivity into account affected our understanding of participant stories. The longing for intimacy created frustrations that needed to be acknowledged and processed by the group. Further tensions revolved around the feminist ideal of egalitarian relationships, which at times conflicted with the need for efficient decision making. We conclude with suggestions to aid feminist researchers in negotiating process issues.

A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality

Since the mid-1980s, scholarship and college courses that address multiple dimensions of inequality under the rubric of race, class, gender, and (recently) sexuality studies have grown rapidly. Most courses now employ a set of readings, many of which are drawn from a growing number of anthologies. A strength of this approach is its presentation of the diversity of human experiences and the multiplicity of critical perspectives. A weakness is its failure to convey the commonalities in race, class, gender, and sexuality analyses of social reality. To aid in teaching and research on race, class, gender, and sexuality, this article presents six common themes that characterize this scholarship. Race, class, gender, and sexuality are historically and globally specific, socially constructed power relations that simultaneously operate at both the macro (societal) and micro (individual) levels of society. Scholarship in this tradition emphasizes the interdependence of knowledge and activism.

Empowering Token Women Leaders

We hypothesized that, in a masculine task, only token women leaders who were empowered through position (by being appointed leader) and expertise (trained with task-relevant information) and legitimated by a male experimenter as credible would be more effective in influencing the performance of their all-male groups than appointed-only and appointed-trained leaders. Thirty women undergraduates each led a small group of male students on a moon survival task. The hypothesis was supported. Videotapes of group interactions revealed that appointed-trained leaders interrupted group members and used tentative tag questions in failed attempts to share their task-relevant knowledge. In addition, group members reported the most dissatisfaction with appointed-trained leaders who, without legitimacy, violated diffused gender roles by presuming to be expert on a masculine task. The importance of the organizational empowerment of token women is underscored.

Participation: Structural and relational power and Maasai women’s political subjectivity in Tanzania

Across the world, women remain seriously underrepresented in governmental politics. Moreover, limited opportunities for political participation and decision-making reflect a widespread societal problem substantiated and perpetuated through gender inequities that operate at numerous levels of society. Challenging and ending systemic gender-based power imbalances is critical to understanding the potential for women’s political participation worldwide. The current study uses a liberation psychology approach to test a model that examines how the dynamics of structure, power, and agency enable (or limit) women’s political participation. In particular, the study examines how women’s landownership influences the dynamics of relational power and individual agency that enable political participation among Maasai women in Tanzania. Surveys conducted among 225 women in northern Tanzania revealed that landownership was related to relationship power which predicted individual agency and, in turn, higher levels of women’s participation at political meetings. The findings suggest that when women have access to structural resources, they gain power within their marital relationships and are thereby more likely to become engaged in political participation and decision-making. Implications for the discussion of women’s political participation worldwide are addressed.

The Explanatory Role of Relationship Power and Control in Domestic Violence Against Women in Nicaragua

This study offers a feminist psychology analysis of various aspects of relationship power and control and their relative explanatory contribution to understanding physical, psychological, and sexual violence against women. Findings from structured interviews with 345 women from rural Nicaragua ( Mage = 44) overwhelmingly demonstrate that measures of power and control reflecting interpersonal relationship dynamics have the strongest predictive power for explaining violence when compared in multivariate analyses to several of the more commonly used measures. These findings have implications for future research and the evaluation of interventions designed to decrease levels of violence against women.

Using qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) in systematic reviews of complex interventions: a worked example

BACKGROUND

Systematic reviews that address policy and practice questions in relation to complex interventions frequently need not only to assess the efficacy of a given intervention but to identify which intervention - and which intervention components - might be most effective in particular situations. Here, intervention replication is rare, and commonly used synthesis methods are less useful when the focus of analysis is the identification of those components of an intervention that are critical to its success.

METHODS

Having identified initial theories of change in a previous analysis, we explore the potential of qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) to assist with complex syntheses through a worked example. Developed originally in the area of political science and historical sociology, a QCA aims to identify those configurations of participant, intervention and contextual characteristics that may be associated with a given outcome. Analysing studies in these terms facilitates the identification of necessary and sufficient conditions for the outcome to be obtained. Since QCA is predicated on the assumption that multiple pathways might lead to the same outcome and does not assume a linear additive model in terms of changes to a particular condition (that is, it can cope with 'tipping points' in complex interventions), it appears not to suffer from some of the limitations of the statistical methods often used in meta-analysis.

RESULTS

The worked example shows how the QCA reveals that our initial theories of change were unable to distinguish between 'effective' and 'highly effective' interventions. Through the iterative QCA process, other intervention characteristics are identified that better explain the observed results.

CONCLUSIONS

QCA is a promising alternative (or adjunct), particularly to the standard fall-back of a 'narrative synthesis' when a quantitative synthesis is impossible, and should be considered when reviews are broad and heterogeneity is significant. There are very few examples of its use with systematic review data at present, and further methodological work is needed to establish optimal conditions for its use and to document process, practice, and reporting standards.

How Gendered Attitudes Relate to Women's and Men's Sexual Behaviors and Beliefs

This study examines associations between endorsement of a sexual double standard, gender role attitudes, and sexual behaviors and beliefs. First year university students in the northeastern United States (N = 434; 52 % female; 33 % Black, 29 % Latino, 39 % White; ages 17-19) participated during their first year of college. Endorsement of a sexual double standard was associated with more conventionally gender-stereotyped sexual behaviors and beliefs, specifically, more sexual partners and fewer perceived barriers to condom use for young men, and more perceived barriers to condom use for young women. Women who were more conventional about men's roles in society tended to use condoms less, whereas women who were more conventional about women's roles tended to use condoms more. Men who were more conventional about men's roles tended to have fewer sexual partners. Findings suggest the importance of examining gender's role in sexual behaviors and beliefs by assessing multiple gendered attitudes, rather than simply considering biological sex.

Women’s Masturbation

With the present study, I explore the function, meaning, and empowerment potential of masturbation for 765 American women. The sample was somewhat diverse, but primarily young (79% under 30), White (75%), educated (85% with at least a bachelor’s degree), and heterosexual (67%). Participants completed an online anonymous survey that included endorsement of various attitudes toward masturbation, reasons for masturbating, and emotions following masturbation. Two split-half exploratory factor analyses (followed by confirmatory factor analyses) indicated that women’s reasons for masturbating clustered into five main reasons: (a) sexual pleasure, (b) to learn about or better understand their bodies, (c) as a release, (d) to substitute for partner sex, and (e) general sexual dissatisfaction. Women’s feelings regarding their masturbation fell into three clusters: (a) shame, (b) sexual empowerment, and (c) fear that one is acting selfishly. Most women in my study did not feel ashamed about masturbating; instead, many women felt sexually empowered. A hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated that women were more likely to feel sexually empowered by the fact that they masturbate if they reported being more sexually efficacious, having higher genital self-image, and masturbating for sexual pleasure or to learn more about their bodies. Results lend support to the feminist theory that when women are able to focus on their own sexual pleasure or learning, without the concerns of pregnancy or pleasing a partner, they may feel sexually empowered.

Community engagement to reduce inequalities in health: a systematic review, meta-analysis and economic analysis

Background

Community engagement has been advanced as a promising way of improving health and reducing health inequalities; however, the approach is not yet supported by a strong evidence base.

Objectives

To undertake a multimethod systematic review which builds on the evidence that underpins the current UK guidance on community engagement; to identify theoretical models underpinning community engagement; to explore mechanisms and contexts through which communities are engaged; to identify community engagement approaches that are effective in reducing health inequalities, under what circumstances and for whom; and to determine the processes and costs associated with their implementation.

Data sources

Databases including the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), The Campbell Library, the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE), the Health Technology Assessment (HTA) database, the NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED) and EPPI-Centre’s Trials Register of Promoting Health Interventions (TRoPHI) and Database of Promoting Health Effectiveness Reviews (DoPHER) were searched from 1990 to August 2011 for systematic reviews and primary studies. Trials evaluating community engagement interventions reporting health outcomes were included.

Review methods

Study eligibility criteria: published after 1990; outcome, economic, or process evaluation; intervention relevant to community engagement; written in English; measured and reported health or community outcomes, or presents cost, resource, or implementation data characterises study populations or reports differential impacts in terms of social determinants of health; conducted in an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) country. Study appraisal: risk of bias for outcome evaluations; assessment of validity and relevance for process evaluations; comparison against an economic evaluation checklist for economic evaluations. Synthesis methods: four synthesis approaches were adopted for the different evidence types: theoretical, quantitative, process, and economic evidence.

Results

The theoretical synthesis identified key models of community engagement that are underpinned by different theories of changes. Results from 131 studies included in a meta-analysis indicate that there is solid evidence that community engagement interventions have a positive impact on health behaviours, health consequences, self-efficacy and perceived social support outcomes, across various conditions. There is insufficient evidence – particularly for long-term outcomes and indirect beneficiaries – to determine whether one particular model of community engagement is likely to be more effective than any other. There are also insufficient data to test the effects on health inequalities, although there is some evidence to suggest that interventions that improve social inequalities (as measured by social support) also improve health behaviours. There is weak evidence from the effectiveness and process evaluations that certain implementation factors may affect intervention success. From the economic analysis, there is weak but inconsistent evidence that community engagement interventions are cost-effective. By combining findings across the syntheses, we produced a new conceptual framework.

Limitations

Differences in the populations, intervention approaches and health outcomes made it difficult to pinpoint specific strategies for intervention effectiveness. The syntheses of process and economic evidence were limited by the small (generally not rigorous) evidence base.

Conclusions

Community engagement interventions are effective across a wide range of contexts and using a variety of mechanisms. Public health initiatives should incorporate community engagement into intervention design. Evaluations should place greater emphasis on long-term outcomes, outcomes for indirect beneficiaries, process evaluation, and reporting costs and resources data. The theories of change identified and the newly developed conceptual framework are useful tools for researchers and practitioners. We identified trends in the evidence that could provide useful directions for future intervention design and evaluation.

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.

HIV risk, partner violence, and relationship power among Filipino young women: testing a structural model

A person's ability to minimize HIV risk is embedded in a complex, multidimensional context. In this study, we tested a model of how relationship power impacts IPV victimization, which in turn impacts HIV risk behaviors. We analyzed data from 474 young adult women (aged 15-31) in Cebu Province, Philippines, using structural equation modeling, and demonstrated good fit for the models. High relationship power is directly associated with increased IPV victimization, and IPV victimization is positively associated with increased HIV risk. We highlight in this article the complex dynamics to consider in HIV risk prevention among these young women.

An empirical examination of women's empowerment and transformative change in the context of international development

This paper responds to calls from social scientists in the area of globalization and women's empowerment to test a model that investigates both structural and individual components of women's empowerment in the context of globalization. The investigation uses a liberation psychology framework by taking into account the effects of globalization, human rights discourse, and women's activism within social movements to identify how structural inequities may be related to empowerment. Surveys conducted in rural Nicaragua revealed that land ownership and organizational participation among women were related to more progressive gender ideology, and in turn, women's power and control within the marital relationship, individual levels of agency, and subjective well-being. The study demonstrates that psychology can bridge the theoretical arguments surrounding human rights with the practical implementation of development interventions, and provide empirical support that has yet to be demonstrated elsewhere. The findings have important implications for strategies and interventions that can improve conditions for women and contribute to the aims of social justice articulated in the Beijing Platform for Action.

The Price of Power: Power Seeking and Backlash Against Female Politicians

Two experimental studies examined the effect of power-seeking intentions on backlash toward women in political office. It was hypothesized that a female politician’s career progress may be hindered by the belief that she seeks power, as this desire may violate prescribed communal expectations for women and thereby elicit interpersonal penalties. Results suggested that voting preferences for female candidates were negatively influenced by her power-seeking intentions (actual or perceived) but that preferences for male candidates were unaffected by power-seeking intentions. These differential reactions were partly explained by the perceived lack of communality implied by women’s power-seeking intentions, resulting in lower perceived competence and feelings of moral outrage. The presence of moral-emotional reactions suggests that backlash arises from the violation of communal prescriptions rather than normative deviations more generally. These findings illuminate one potential source of gender bias in politics.

Prevalence and correlates of heterosexual anal intercourse among Black and Latina female adolescents

Anal intercourse (AI) is a recognized HIV risk behavior, yet little is known about AI among adolescent girls and young women. The authors studied the prevalence and correlates of heterosexual AI (HAI) among Black and Latina adolescent girls and young women. The data come from two randomized clinical trials (RCTs) of HIV prevention interventions with Black and Latina adolescent girls and young women. In the second RCT, a Sexual Relationship Power Scale was added to the questionnaire. Thirty-five percent of participants in the first RCT (N =244) and 23% of those in the second RCT (N =101) reported engaging in HAI, most without a condom. Significant correlations existed between HAI and a high-risk sexual history. HAI is prevalent in this population. Nurses must educate female adolescent patients about risks associated with HAI.

Managing men: women's dilemmas about overt and covert use of barrier methods for HIV prevention

Women in sub-Saharan Africa are at high risk of HIV infection and may struggle to negotiate condom use. This has led to a focus on the development of female-controlled barrier methods such as the female condom, microbicides and the diaphragm. One of the advantages of such products is their contribution to female empowerment through attributes that make covert use possible. We used focus groups to discuss covert use of barrier methods with a sample of South African women aged 18-50 years from Eastern Johannesburg. Women's attitudes towards covert use of HIV prevention methods were influenced by the overarching themes of male dislike of HIV and pregnancy prevention methods, the perceived untrustworthiness of men and social interpretations of female faithfulness. Women's discussions ranged widely from overt to covert use of barrier methods for HIV prevention and were influenced by partner characteristics and previous experience with contraception and HIV prevention. The discussions indicate that challenging gender norms for HIV prevention can be achieved in quite subtle ways, in a manner that suits individual women's relationships and previous experiences with negotiation of either HIV or pregnancy prevention.

Associations among Aspects of Interpersonal Power and Relationship Functioning in Adolescent Romantic Couples

This study used a multidimensional assessment of interpersonal power to examine associations between indices of relationship power and relationship functioning in 92 adolescent romantic couples recruited from rural communities in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States. Significant differences emerged between girlfriends and boyfriends in their reports of decision making authority, perceptions of humiliating behaviors by the partner, and ratings of themselves giving-in to their partners in a videotaped interaction task. In addition, indices of interpersonal power were associated with dating aggression and relationship satisfaction for both girlfriends and boyfriends, although gender differences emerged in the patterns of association between power and outcomes. Results are discussed in light of current developmental, feminist, and social psychological theories of interpersonal power in romantic relationships.

A Relationship Power Scale for Female Adolescents: Preliminary Development and Psychometric Testing

OBJECTIVES

To develop and test psychometric characteristics of the Relationship Power Scale (RPS), which can be used to explore the relationship power of female adolescents in heterosexual relationships.

METHODS

Cross-sectional design. Female adolescents in Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, who had a steady relationship with a boyfriend at the time of the study were recruited as study subjects (n=414) to test validity and reliability of the RPS.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a one-factor model with correlated uniqueness among the positively worded items best fits the data. There were significantly different scores in 3 different response groups on 2 items regarding who (participants, both themselves and their boyfriends equally, or their boyfriends) had more power in the relationship, and who was more emotionally involved in the relationship for all subjects. For subjects having sex with their steady boyfriends, RPS scores significantly differ among the 3 different response groups on 2 items regarding who had more say about having sex, and who had more say about using condoms. Cronbach's alpha for the RPS was .69. Test-retest reliability coefficients for the RPS were .83.

CONCLUSIONS

The RPS exhibited acceptable reliability and validity. Further research is recommended to use the RPS in sex-related behavior research among heterosexual female adolescents.

What Makes Women Feel Powerful? An Exploratory Study of Relationship Power and Sexual Decision-Making with African Americans at Risk for HIV/STDs

Because of the importance of relationship power and cultural norms on women's ability to protect themselves from HIV/STDs, effective interventions must address power differentials among men and women. These programs need to be informed by and adapted to the cultural values of the target population. Accordingly, we conducted exploratory interviews with 22 young African American women at risk of HIV/ STDs and unintended pregnancy and their male partners regarding the meaning of power in heterosexual relationships, what makes a woman feel powerful in a relationship with a man, and who makes sexual and reproductive decisions in their relationships. Content analyses suggested that relationship power was linked to control and decision-making for most participants; yet, others appeared to associate power with positive relationship qualities such as respect and security. In addition, most participants reported that they shared decision-making about sexual and reproductive matters with their partners. Subsequently, interviews were conducted with another 40 women to explore and identify cultural beliefs regarding what makes women feel powerful in their relationships with their husbands or partners. Cultural consensus analysis was performed and results indicated that the participants comprise a cultural group with shared beliefs about what makes women feel powerful in their relationships. Participants believed that women's sense of power in their relationships came from (1) knowing what they want and having autonomy and control; (2) the quality of their relationships; (3) having resources to provide for their families; and (4) physical attractiveness and sexual factors.

Relationship power, decision making, and sexual relations: an exploratory study with couples of Mexican origin

This study explored how couples of Mexican origin define power in intimate relationships, what makes men and women feel powerful in relationships, and the role of each partner in decision making about sexual and reproductive matters. Interviews were conducted with each partner of 39 sexually active couples and data were analyzed using content analysis. Results indicate that power is perceived as control over one s partner and the ability to make decisions. Women say they feel more powerful in relationships when they make unilateral decisions and have economic independence. Men feel powerful when they have control over their partner and bring home money. Respondents agreed that women make decisions about household matters and children, while men make decisions related to money. Findings indicate that whereas couples share decision making about sexual activities and contraceptive use, men are seen as initiators of sexual activity and women are more likely to suggest condom use.

The benefits of being a nurse in critical social research practice

In critical social research, or research that evokes feminist or critical epistemological positions, researchers must examine their own situatedness vis-à-vis their research participants and work toward methods that break down the hierarchies inherent in the research relationship and empower research participants. Such aspects of research practices necessitate strong interpersonal skills, characteristic of many nurses. Drawing on their experiences, the authors critically appraise the benefits of nursing in critical social research practice. Nurses can move beyond their own discipline to use their skills, identity, and intersubjective way of relating with others to gain access to participants and data. Through a unique process of building meaning and interpreting data, nurse researchers are well placed to take effective actions for change.

The effects of ethnicity and perceived power on women's sexual behavior

To aid development of programs to prevent HIV transmission in women, differences in sexual attitudes and behavior were examined among women who described themselves as dominant in their relationship with a male partner, sharing dominance equally with a male partner, or being dominated by a male partner. Ethnic differences were also examined among these three groups. Results indicated that perceived dominance was a significant predictor of women's personal empowerment (self-efficacy and outcome expectancies) with regard to sexual decisionmaking in their current relationship and safer sex behaviors. Ethnic differences were found between African American and White women in personal empowerment and safer sex behavior. Perceived dominance did not appear to affect African American and White women differently.

Power and gender: violence and affection experienced by children in Barbados, West Indies

Discourses on violence conceptualize the phenomenon as a property of (1) individuals, (2) social circumstances, and (3) social relationships. Rigorous comparative tests fail to support the first and second hypotheses. Survey data collected in 1990 from a national random sample of 407 men and women aged twenty to forty-five from the West Indian island of Barbados indicate that one of four experienced physical and emotional violence as children. Boys and girls were equally likely to be abused by both mothers (or other female caregivers) and fathers (or other male caregivers); stepparents were no more likely to treat children violently than were biological parents. However, the presence of a stepfather increased the likelihood that women battered their daughters and decreased the likelihood that women battered their sons. In general, powerful women protected their children from violence, treated them affectionately, and elicited affection for them from their men. The probability that a son experienced an affectionate relationship with a biological father rose with the length of time the two lived together, but only for sons with powerful mothers. By contrast, men battered powerless women and the children of powerless women. Powerless women battered their own children.