Menopause Research and The Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994

Menopause and Sustainable Career Outcomes: A Science Mapping Approach

This paper provides a systematic review of the phenomenon of menopause at the workplace from a sustainable career perspective, by highlighting its major themes along with the evolution and tendencies observed in this field. A conceptual science mapping analysis based on co-word bibliographic networks was developed, using the SciMAT tool. From 1992 to 2020, 185 documents were retrieved from the Web of Science. In the first analyzed time span (1992-2002), postmenopausal women, health, and risk factors appeared to be the motor themes (well-developed and important for the structure of the discipline under focus), and disorder was an emerging or disappearing theme in the phenomenon under research. In the second studied period (2003-2013), risk and health were motor themes, menopausal symptoms was a basic or transversal theme (important for the discipline but not well-developed), coronary heart disease was a specialized theme (well-developed but less important for the structure of the research field), and postmenopausal women was an emerging or disappearing theme (both weakly developed and marginal to the field). In the third studied period (2014-2020), menopause, breast cancer, and menopausal symptoms were motor themes, Anxiety was a specialized theme and risk and body mass index were emerging or disappearing themes. Sustainability of women's careers in the second half of life is of increasing importance given the increasing equal representation of men and women in working organizations, and the impact of the changing nature of work in the 21st century on older workers.

Menstrual Cycle Hormone Changes Associated with Reproductive Aging and How They May Relate to Symptoms

Key cycle changes occur as women transition from reproductive life to menopause, and they can be roughly linked to menopausal staging. It is important to understand the types of studies that inform the current knowledge. Patterns of symptoms within menstrual cycles (sleep, headache) generally favor worsening in association with the perimenstrual phase of the cycle, and patterns of chronic symptoms, such as hot flashes and adverse mood, appear to be worse when hormones are more variable.

Innovative Methods

A selection of innovative methods congenial to research in feminist psychology is reviewed. The methods described include collaborations, discourse analysis, ethnography, existential-phenomenological inquiry, focus groups, interviews, narrative investigations, performative methods, and the Q-sort. A brief description of undergraduate and graduate courses that emphasize these methods in their curricula follows. A bibliography of over 300 entries organized by type of innovative method is included. Journals recommended as publishing outlets for research using these innovative methods are listed with their Web sites.

Feminism and Health in the Decade of Behavior

National health data are presented to demonstrate that important issues of women's health are linked to inequality and to the generalized oppression of women. Health issues of violence, reproductive health, coronary health, and mental health are reviewed as they relate to women of color and diverse ethnicity as well as to women in general. Feminist principles are applied to these issues, pointing out inequalities in assessment, treatment and access to care, bias in research and lack of research on topics particularly relevant to women and minorities, and limitations in the education and training of health care providers. It is imperative that these problems, which are not solely biological, be addressed in light of systems-level analysis that includes a feminist lens. Guided by feminist principles and sensibilities, the relevance of behavioral and social science is outlined for research, training, assessment, intervention, evaluation, and overall social change.

Feminism and the Decade of Behavior

This Psychology of Women Quarterly special issue argues that the goals of the Decade of Behavior to foster a healthier, safer, better educated, more prosperous, and more democratic nation cannot be achieved without contributions from feminist psychology. Its individual articles reflect feminist perspectives and provide examples of how feminist perspectives can inform behavioral and social research within Decade domains. In this overview, we outline the challenges that gender poses to achieving Decade goals, and discuss four cross-cutting feminist principles for research to address those challenges: Inclusiveness and Diversity, Context, Power and Privilege, and Activism. We discuss specific limitations of traditional research, and emphasize the need for new models that view the world in more complex, context-based ways. We underscore the importance of generating new, diversity-mindful research questions and of developing and accepting new methods to answer them. We discuss policy implications, stressing the need for activism. We hope this work will encourage the expansion of feminist scholarship in the new millennium and be helpful to researchers, educators, and policymakers in working to achieve the goals of the Decade of Behavior.

Being in the script of menopause: mapping the complexities of coping strategies

In this article we explore the discourses of menopause, aging, and the complexities of coping with both menopause and aging among 30 women between the ages of 43 and 61 years living in Melbourne, Australia. Employing a qualitative design with thematic analysis, we uncover the complexity and heterogeneity of coping styles. Three major coping strategies are identified: inventive, troubled, and reactive. Recognition of the variety of coping strategies creatively negotiated within the dynamic, complex processes of aging and menopause might assist women in developing effective responses to these sometimes challenging life experiences.

Women's attitude and perceptions towards menopause in different cultures

OBJECTIVE

To study cross-cultural and intra-cultural differences between the perception and the experience of menopause in pre-menopausal and post-menopausal German and Papua New Guineas women.

DESIGN

Concepts concerning menopause and the experience of the menopause were assessed by the symptom categories (i.e. hot flashes, cardiac or sleeping disorders, depression, irritability, lack of drive, vaginal dryness, painful joints or muscles) according to the Menopause Rating Scale (MRS). In addition to the translated English version, a questionnaire in Pidgin-English was offered. Questions about positive and negative expectations of menopause and the acceptance of hormonal replacement therapy were included. Statistical analysis was performed using Chi-square test and the Mann-Whitney U-test as indicated.

RESULTS

One hundred and one pre-menopausal and 40 post-menopausal women in Germany as well as 36 pre-menopausal and 41 post-menopausal women in Papua New Guinea were questioned. The expectations regarding the menopause differed significantly in favor of a higher trait intensity concerning the item of hot flashes in Germany and a significantly higher trait intensity in the items cardiac trouble, lack of drive, urological symptoms, vaginal dryness, joint and muscle symptoms in Papua New Guinea. In the menopause experience, significant differences between the cultures are confirmed in favor of a higher trait intensity in Papua New Guinea concerning experienced depression, drop in performance, sexual disturbances and vaginal dryness. The intra-cultural comparison between the concepts concerning menopause and the menopause experience in Germany shows a significantly higher trait intensity with regard to the expected disturbance from hot flashes, depression, agitation, lack of drive and sexual problems as compared to the experienced disturbances. In Papua New Guinea, the survey showed a difference in expected and experienced vaginal dryness.

CONCLUSIONS

Perception and concepts concerning illness and health are based on culturally produced patterns.

Hot Flash, Hot Topic: Conceptualizing Menopausal Symptoms From a Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective

While most healthy women report that the menopausal transition is nondistressing, a subset of women does report that symptoms significantly interfere in their lives. The most common reason that women seek treatment during this time is for vasomotor symptoms, namely, hot flashes and night sweats. Research has suggested that reports of distress during flashing are only weakly related to more objective measures of the flash, including duration and frequency and that differences in treatment-seeking during the menopausal transition may be better accounted for by differences in symptom awareness mediated by a variety of personality and stress factors. This paper discusses hot flashes and night sweats from a cognitive-behavioral perspective, taking into account individual difference variables that may also affect the experience of menopausal symptoms.

Contributions of social science to the alcohol field in an era of biomedicalization

In an era of biomedicalization where findings in genetic and neurobiological research are seen as "breakthroughs" by the media and hence by the general public, it is important for social scientists to acknowledge the effect of their contributions to the alcohol field not only to their own colleagues but also to the public at-large. Contributions of social science research to the development and evaluation of alcohol policies are illustrated in the following four areas: (1) alcohol epidemiological research focusing on the importance of examining drinking patterns and their relation to alcohol-related problems; (2) alcohol's contribution to the burden of disease; (3) alcohol control policies and their impact; and (4) brief interventions that provide strategies for at-risk drinkers as well as those who are alcohol dependent.

Medicalization vs. Adaptive Models? Sense-Making in Magazine Framing of Menopause

Women over the age of 40 are largely absent from media imagery. This study examined how magazines have framed menopause over the past two decades, as an increasing number of women have entered the phase. Using a traditional content analysis, we analyzed author and source gender, topics, and photographs in menopause articles in seven news and women's magazines. A computerized content-analysis program was used to determine how the magazines framed menopause. "Framing" refers to the emphasis and theme(s) of an article. Women's magazines provided a broad range of topics to help women prepare and cope; news magazines reported scientific developments, particularly in fertility. More frames, including clearer descriptions of symptoms and effects, occurred in women's magazines. Female authors included menopausal women as sources, but males did not. Photos of menopausal women appeared in a small portion of articles, and the women shown were predominantly white. Findings indicate some consistency with media coverage of other women's health issues, but with greater differences between news and women's magazines.

Managing menopause: a qualitative analysis of self-help literature for women at midlife

This article reports on a qualitative social constructionist analysis that aims to examine the ways in which menopause and women's bodies are represented in self-help texts. In particular, we aim to compare texts with a more traditional 'medical' approach and others taking a more 'woman-centred' perspective. Four diverse self-help books on menopause and HRT available in England were analysed to examine the ways in which women, menopause and midlife were portrayed, and to investigate the construction of notions of knowledge, expertise and responsibility. The selected texts were published between 1992 and 1996 and covered a range of perspectives, including medical, alternative and feminist. Results showed that menopause was constructed as a 'deficiency disease' in all four texts, although in three of the texts this 'disease' discourse was counterposed by the simultaneous use of a 'menopause as natural' discourse. Menopause was also constructed as inherently complex and confusing, as were women's bodies. A discourse of 'change' was drawn upon in which menopause was portrayed as only one of the stressful events women must cope with at midlife. Finally, most of the texts drew on a discourse of 'management' rather than one of 'treatment' or 'cure' when discussing how menopause, and women's relationship to menopause should be handled. The medical profession was constructed as the primary source of expertise on menopause and women's bodies, although responsibility for the 'management' of menopause as a chronic condition lay solely with individual women. Although there were a number of differences in representations of menopause in medically oriented self-help texts and those adopting a more woman-centred perspective, our analysis also revealed several areas of similarity and overlap with regard to the construction of menopause and its 'management'. The implications of these findings for the construction of menopause in self-help texts for women are discussed.

Relation of perceived emotional intelligence and health-related quality of life of middle-aged women

This study examined the relationship between perceived emotional intelligence and health-related quality of life in middle-aged women. 99 middle-aged Spanish women, who studied in two adult schools, volunteered to participate. 49 were premenopausal and 45 were postmenopausal. These women completed the Trait Meta-Mood Scale and Health Survey SF-36. Scores were analyzed according to social, physical, and mental health, menopausal status, and scores on perceived emotional intelligence. Then, the data regarding the mental and physical health of the premenopausal and postmenopausal women were compared after controlling for age. No associations between menopausal status and health-related quality of life were found. Perceived skill at mood repair was significantly associated with scores on health-related quality of life in these middle-aged women. These findings provide empirical evidence that aspects of perceived emotional intelligence may account for the health-related quality of life in midlife including social, physical, and psychological symptoms.

Psychosocial aspects of selected issues in women's reproductive health: current status and future directions

Emphasizing research published in the past decade, this article presents a summary and evaluation of psychosocial investigations of women's reproductive health, with a focus on selected aspects of menstruation, pregnancy and birth, infertility, and menopause. In some areas, studies have focused on negative physical and psychological concomitants of these health issues. However, research reveals substantial individual variability, with most women adapting well to reproductive health changes. Although methodological and conceptual shortcomings have limited firm conclusions, research has advanced our understanding of the multivariate biological, psychological, and social influences on women's reproductive health and associated outcomes. Understanding and promoting women's reproductive health across the lifespan requires biopsychosocial approaches to research.

The healing web

We focused on the computer-mediated communication (CMC) of social support in an electronic health discussion group dealing with menopause and midlife transition to show how vital support is to women who are trying to make sense of the change in their lives. We analyzed 2,000 messages, examining the type and frequency of support messages, how support was demonstrated, and how support was recognized by participants. We then provided evidence to show that a community of support had developed.

'Menopausal symptoms': associations with menopausal status and psychosocial factors

This study investigated the relative importance of psychosocial factors as opposed to menopausal status in relation to so-called 'menopausal symptoms' among a large sample of premenopausal, perimenopausal and (naturally and surgically) postmenopausal women (n = 4308) in The Netherlands. The incidence of psychological, somatic, vasomotor and sexual symptoms was assessed and related to menopausal status and to measures relating to coping behaviors, (body- and self-) esteem and quality of life. Among the findings were that vasomotor symptoms in particular, and loss of interest in sex to a lesser extent, were relatively strongly associated with menopausal status. Psychological and somatic symptoms, however, were found to be more closely associated with psychosocial factors (although perimenopausal women as a group were found to suffer them most). Findings are discussed and interpreted as further evidence that only vasomotor symptoms may rightly be called 'menopausal'.

Women's midlife confusion: "why am I feeling this way?"

Midlife is a multifaceted stage of woman's development, characterized by important transitions. In an ethnographic study of women's midlife experience of their changing bodies, 11 participants voiced their uncertainty and confusion around bodily changes, responses exacerbated by the lack of consistent health-related information in this area. This confusion emerged as one of the major thematic elements of the study. Midlife women's experience of confusion may reflect a much broader problem, the locus of which is not so much in the women themselves, but rather in negative societal attitudes about aging women. This article describes various aspects of confusion that emerged from the data, and offers implications of the research and recommendations for practitioners.

Portraits of menopause in the mass media

This examination of menopause as presented by the popular print media was conducted in the context of furthering our understanding of the development of attitudes toward menopause. All articles indexed under "menopause" in the Reader's Guide in the years 1981, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1993, and 1994 were located and examined. The data revealed that, although there has been an increase in the frequency of articles on menopause in the last 15 years, the media's portrayal of menopause is problematic in several respects: (a) in spite of the increased attention, the information available on menopause through the popular media is minimal and insufficient; (b) there was little variability in terms of perspective, discipline, or focus; almost all were focused on menopause as a negative experience or disease and in need of medical treatment; (c) there was considerable contradiction and inconsistency among the articles with respect to descriptions of menopause and intervention advice for menopausal women; (d) aging, stress, life-style factors, race and ethnicity, exercise and diet were, with few exceptions, ignored or trivialized.