Sociocultural Influence and Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity Among College Students

Longitudinal study of social anxiety symptoms and appearance rejection in predicting body dysmorphic symptoms: Appearance-based rejection sensitivity as a mediator

Previous findings from cross-sectional studies suggest that social anxiety symptoms and negative peers' experiences regarding appearance were predictors of body dysmorphic symptoms through appearance-based rejection sensitivity. However, little is known about longitudinal relations and parental appearance rejection on body dysmorphic symptoms. Therefore, this study aims to examine the longitudinal mediation of appearance-based rejection sensitivity with social anxiety symptoms, remembered peers', maternal, and paternal appearance-based rejection as predictors, and body dysmorphic symptoms as an outcome. The study included 277 university students who completed questionnaires in two-measurements points 5 months apart. The results indicated that social anxiety symptoms predicted changes in body dysmorphic symptoms through appearance-based rejection sensitivity. In addition, remembered childhood peers' appearance-based rejection predicted both directly and indirectly changes in body dysmorphic symptoms over time. Maternal and paternal appearance-based rejection were not predictors of appearance-based rejection sensitivity or body dysmorphic symptoms. Findings support rejection sensitivity theory and the long-lasting impact of negative peers' experiences for impaired body dysmorphic symptoms. However, further research regarding remembered parental negative experiences is needed.

Unique associations of social media use and online appearance preoccupation with depression, anxiety, and appearance rejection sensitivity

Social media (SM) can create a climate of social comparison and preoccupation with appearance, which can pose risks for emotional problems, such as depression and social anxiety. In this study, 763 adolescents and young adults reported time spent and intensity of social media use and preoccupation with both general and appearance-related (AR) social media activities and content. Associations were investigated with markers of depression and social anxiety symptoms and appearance sensitivities - appearance anxiety and appearance rejection sensitivity (appearance-RS). Social media use was positively associated with symptoms of depression, social anxiety, appearance anxiety, and appearance-RS. General and AR preoccupation had unique and positive associations with depression and social anxiety symptoms and with appearance sensitivities. AR preoccupation was also found to strengthen the relationship between time spent on social media and appearance-RS. Although there were gender differences on all measures, with young women scoring higher on all measures, there was no evidence that gender moderated the effects of AR social media preoccupation. Findings support emerging evidence that social media engagement and behavior, particularly activities involving appearance comparisons and judgements, may be more of a risk to depression and social anxiety symptoms and appearance sensitivities than simply the frequency of social media use.

Aussehensbezogene Zurückweisungssensitivität bei körperdysmorpher Störung und Essstörungen

Hintergrund

Die körperdysmorphe Störung (KDS) und die Essstörungen (ESS) weisen erhebliche Symptomüberschneidungen auf, was die Differenzialdiagnose erschwert. Die Psychopathologie der beiden Störungen deutet auf die aussehensbezogene Zurückweisungssensitivität („appearance-based rejection sensitivity“, ARS) als mögliches differenzierendes Merkmal hin.

Ziel der Arbeit

Die Studie soll Hinweise zu einer Verbesserung der Differenzialdiagnostik zwischen KDS und ESS geben. Dazu wurden die Störungen hinsichtlich der ARS miteinander verglichen. Auf Basis der bisherigen empirischen Forschung wurde davon ausgegangen, dass bei KDS höhere ARS-Werte vorliegen als bei ESS. Weiterhin sollte eine höhere Varianzaufklärung von KDS an der ARS unter Konstanthaltung von Störvariablen (sozialängstliche Symptome, Body-Mass-Index, Geschlecht) geprüft werden.

Material und Methoden

Eine Verfügbarkeitsstichprobe (n = 736) füllte online die Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity Scale, die Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, den Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire und ein DSM-5-Screening zu KDS aus.

Ergebnisse

Teilnehmer mit komorbid positivem KDS-ESS-Screening erzielten den höchsten ARS-Gesamtwert aber ähnlich hohe Werte wie Teilnehmer mit positivem ESS-Screening. Beide Gruppen erzielten signifikant höhere Werte als Teilnehmer mit positivem KDS-Screening, welche wiederum signifikant höhere Werte erzielten als symptomfreie Teilnehmer. Die Regressionsanalyse bestätigte eine höhere Varianzaufklärung an der ARS durch ESS als durch KDS bei Konstanthaltung von Störvariablen.

Diskussion

Die ARS konnte nicht als differenzierendes Merkmal zwischen KDS und ESS im Sinne der Hypothesen bestätigt werden. Allerdings könnten hohe ARS-Werte einen Hinweis auf eine ESS oder KDS darstellen, sehr hohe Werte für komorbide ESS-KDS-Symptome. Dies sollte diagnostisch abgesichert und ggf. in der Therapie berücksichtigt werden.

Media ideals and early adolescents' body image: Selective avoidance or selective exposure?

The present study combines selective exposure theory with body image coping literature to study effects of media internalization in early adolescence. The main objective was to explore how early adolescents selectively internalize media body ideals to manage their body image. To examine the role of media internalization in early adolescents' body image management, we used two-wave panel data (N_Wave1 = 1986) gathered among 9- to 14-year-olds. Structural equation analyses indicated that media internalization (Wave 1) positively related to body surveillance (Wave 2). Body surveillance (Wave 2), in turn, was associated with more body image self-discrepancy (Wave 2). In addition, body image self-discrepancy (Wave 1) related to higher body surveillance (Wave 1). Body surveillance, in turn, related to more media internalization cross-sectionally, but less media internalization six months later. Taken together, these results suggest a role for media internalization in early adolescents' body image management. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Objectifying Women's Bodies Is Acceptable from an Intimate Perpetrator, at Least for Female Sexists

Objectification of the female body is generating much research. Nevertheless, this has revealed little about whether women's evaluations depend on the level of psychological intimacy with the perpetrator of that objectification. Intimacy theory predicts that objectifying comments would seem more acceptable coming from a close partner, especially for sexist women. The present study begins to fill these gaps by analyzing responses from 301 heterosexual/bisexual adult women in the United States (M age = 37.02, range = 18-72) to appearance and sexual body comments made by four different male perpetrators: strangers, colleagues, friends, or partners. Measures assessed women's perceptions of objectification, as well as reported enjoyment of these comments. As long as they were not negative, comments from heterosexual partners were perceived as the least objectifying and enjoyed the most; comments from colleagues, strangers, and friends were linked with greater objectification and less enjoyment. Additionally, sexist attitudes toward men and women-but more clearly toward men-linked with objectification and enjoyment. Future research directions and practical implications are discussed.

Relaxed natural selection contributes to global obesity increase more in males than in females due to more environmental modifications in female body mass

OBJECTIVE

Relaxed natural selection, measured by Biological State Index (Ibs), results in unfavourable genes/mutations accumulation in population. Obesity is partly heritable. We aim to examine and compare the effects of relaxed natural selection on male and female obesity prevalence.

METHODS

Data for 191 countries of the world were captured for this ecological study. Curvilinear regressions, bivariate and partial correlations, linear mixed models and multivariate linear regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between Ibs and sex-specific obesity prevalence. Per capita GDP, urbanization and caloric intake were controlled for as the confounding factors. Fisher r-to-z transformation, R2 increment in multivariate regression and F-test were used to compare the correlations.

RESULTS

Curvilinear regressions, bivariate and partial correlations (controlled for GDP, urbanization and calories) revealed that Ibs was significantly correlated to obesity prevalence of both sexes, but significantly stronger to male than to female obesity prevalence. Curvilinear regression models also showed strong correlations. Mixed linear models, with effects of GDP, urbanisation and caloric intake controlled for, showed that male and female average obesity prevalence rates were significantly higher in countries with greater Ibs value than their equivalents in countries with lower Ibs. Between higher and lower Ibs countries, the gap of male obesity prevalence is 60% greater than the gap of female obesity prevalence. Stepwise multiple regression identified that Ibs was a significant predictor of obesity prevalence of both sexes. Multivariate regression showed that, adding Ibs as an obesity predictor, R2 increment in male model was significantly greater than in female model.

CONCLUSIONS

Relaxed natural selection may drive males and females to accumulate metabolic faulty genes equally. Probably due to greater environmental, personal intervention in regulating female body mass, relaxed natural selection shows less contributing effects to female obesity prevalence than to male obesity prevalence. Gene therapy to prevent obesity may need to be also taken into account.

"I Can/Should Look Like a Media Figure": The Association Between Direct and Indirect Media Exposure and Teens' Sexualizing Appearance Behaviors

Prior research has examined the influence of media exposure on adolescents' sexualized self-concept, but engagement in sexualizing appearance behaviors remains understudied, especially among a younger age group (i.e., early adolescents). This three-wave panel study among 971 nine- to 14-year-olds (M_age = 12.99, SD = 1.03) showed that discussing media content with friends (i.e., indirect media exposure) was indirectly related to sexualizing appearance behaviors through perceived attainability of the appearance ideal. Direct media exposure was not significantly related to sexualizing appearance behaviors, nor to perceived pressure or perceived attainability. Direct and indirect media exposure influenced boys and girls in similar ways, although the model showed a better fit among the girls. In addition, reward sensitivity did not moderate the examined relations.

"Pretty Pressure" From Peers, Parents, and the Media: A Longitudinal Study of Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity

Drawing from the tripartite sociocultural model of body image, the researchers examined whether direct messages and modeling from peers, parents, and media were concurrently and prospectively associated with appearance-based rejection sensitivity (appearance-RS) in young adolescents (M_age  = 12.0 years). Appearance-RS was higher among those who concurrently reported more appearance-related teasing and pressure by peers, more parent teasing, and greater acceptance of media appearance ideals. In prospective analyses, greater increases in appearance-RS over 1 year were found for adolescents who perceived higher levels of parental appearance-related teasing and negative attitudes about their own appearance. Moderation analyses indicated the positive prospective association between parental negative appearance attitudes and appearance-RS was found in younger but not older participants. Gender did not moderate associations.

Linking Magazine Exposure to Social Appearance Anxiety: The Role of Appearance Norms in Early Adolescence

Early adolescents (N = 1,591; M_age  = 11.698; SD = 0.892) participated in a two-wave panel study (6-month interval) to examine the longitudinal association between appearance-focused magazine exposure and social appearance anxiety. We revealed that magazine exposure positively correlated with the internalization of appearance ideals and the attribution of social rewards to attractiveness which, in turn, related to social appearance anxiety. Internalization and attribution of social rewards formed a reinforcing spiral; once internalized, early adolescents associate positive things with appearance ideals (e.g., peer acceptance) and the perception of rewards increases early adolescents' inclination to internalize ideals. Given the adverse consequences of social appearance anxiety, the findings warrant research on the role of media in the occurrence of social appearance anxiety.

Du magst mich nicht, weil ich hässlich bin!

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Viele Personen befürchten Zurückweisungen aufgrund ihres Aussehens. Übermäßige „aussehensbezogene Zurückweisungssensitivität“ (ARS) kann jedoch zur Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung von – insbesondere körperfokussierter – Psychopathologie beitragen. Fragestellung: ARS ist im deutschsprachigen Raum wenig untersucht, da Erhebungsinstrumente fehlen. Daher war die Validierung einer deutschen „Appearance-based-Rejection-Sensitivity-Scale“ (ARS-D; Park, 2007 ) Ziel der Studie. Methode: Nach Übersetzung des englischen Originals wurde die psychometrische Güte der ARS-D in einer Online-Befragung getestet (n = 391). Ermittelt wurden Itemcharakteristika, Faktorstruktur, Reliabilität und Konstruktvalidität. Ergebnisse: Die ARS-D zeigte bei einfaktorieller Struktur sehr gute Reliabilitätsindizes. Die psychometrischen Eigenschaften ließen sich bei einer auf 12 Items gekürzten Skalenvariante (Original: 15 Items) weiter verbessern. Signifikante Korrelationen mit körperdysmorpher Besorgnis, Essstörungssymptomatik und Depressivität (rs > .30) indizieren Konstruktvalidität. Schlussfolgerungen: Die ARS-D ist zur Erfassung und weiteren Erforschung der Rolle aussehensbezogener Zurückweisungssensitivität bei verschiedenen Störungsbildern geeignet.

Exploring cultural differences in women's body weight perception: The impact of self-construal on perceived overweight and engagement in health activities

We examined the cultural influence on perceived body weight and the level of health practices at a national and individual level. At a national level, we found that Japanese women (n = 80) overestimate body weight more than Korean (n = 82) and American (n = 63) women. At an individual level, individuals with interdependent self-construal were more prone to overestimate weight than those with independent self-construal (N = 182; American women). Based on the data, we identify that the relationship is mediated by self-criticism, and, importantly, it is self-criticism rather than perceived overweight that predicts the level of health activities. Health practitioners and campaign designers across cultures are recommended to concentrate on promoting positive body esteem instead of encouraging engagement in corrective health behaviors for weight loss.

Systematic Review: Psychosocial Interventions for Children and Young People With Visible Differences Resulting From Appearance Altering Conditions, Injury, or Treatment Effects

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate critically the evidence of the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for children/young people (<18 years old) with visible differences in improving self-esteem, social experiences, psychological well-being, and behavioral outcomes.

METHODS

Studies were systematically identified using electronic databases, appraised according to eligibility criteria and evaluated for risk of bias. Findings were reported using the PRISMA checklist.

RESULTS

Studies were identified that evaluated residential social camps, exercise with counseling, social skills training (SIST), behavioral therapy (BT), and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Risk of bias within studies was high. Camp studies and exercise with counseling showed little or no effect postintervention on self-esteem, social experiences, and psychological well-being. The five studies evaluating SIST, CBT, and BT provided limited support for their effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence base is inconclusive. Further rigorous research using appropriate outcome measures to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions for young people with visible differences is required.

The source and impact of appearance teasing: an examination by sex and weight status among early adolescents from the Czech Republic

BACKGROUND

Some adolescents are victims of negative appearance-related feedback, and this may have lasting adverse effects on their self-evaluation. The aim of this study was to examine the frequency and impact of appearance teasing across sex and weight status.

METHODS

The participants were 570 Czech adolescents (47.9% girls) evaluated at age 13 during the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Instruments used were body mass index and an adapted version of the Physical Experiences Survey that measures appearance teasing sources (parents, peers, among others), body part teased, and the impact of teasing. Chi-square test and multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to compare groups by sex and weight status. Logistic regression was then used for adjusted analyses.

RESULTS

Girls were more likely to report appearance teasing than boys. Overweight adolescents, both girls and boys, were more likely to be teased than non-overweight adolescents. Overweight adolescents compared with non-overweight adolescents reported higher levels of impact of body-related teasing.

CONCLUSIONS

Czech adolescents continue to adopt the societal standards of Western countries, stigmatizing overweight peers. This may affect more obese adolescents. Future research has to evaluate different sources of appearance-related teasing. Interventions in schools are suitable for the reduction of appearance-related prejudices.

Mediating effects of stress, weight-related issues, and depression on suicidality in college students

OBJECTIVE

Through a holistic health lens, the current study examines the effects of weight-related issues and stress on suicidality while controlling for depressive symptoms in college students.

PARTICIPANTS

In total, 872 undergraduate and graduate students at DePaul University completed the American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II Web-based survey in Spring 2010.

METHODS

Measures of suicidality, depression, weight-related issues, and life stressors were assessed, along with gender differences.

RESULTS

Females reported experiencing more weight loss attempts and total stressors than males. Weight-related issues and stress both significantly predicted depressive symptoms in a path analysis; depressive symptoms, in turn, significantly predicted suicidality. Gender differences were found; depressive symptoms mediate the relation between stress and suicidal behavior for females but not for males.

IMPLICATIONS

This investigation furthers previous research on suicidality in college students and suggests that all-inclusive interventions that address weight-related issues and stress may help reduce depressive symptoms, which then may reduce suicidal behavior.

Predicting excessive body image concerns among British university students: the unique role of Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity

The present research examined the extent to which interpersonal concerns about rejection based on appearance, or Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS), serves as an indicator of risk for excessive body image concerns. Extending previous research, we examined the association between Appearance-RS and symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and cosmetic surgery attitudes among 106 British university students. Consistent with predictions, Appearance-RS uniquely predicted greater degree of BDD symptoms after controlling for other known predictor variables. Also, as expected, Appearance-RS uniquely predicted acceptance of cosmetic surgery for both intrapersonal and social reasons and greater consideration of having cosmetic surgery in the future. These findings highlight the importance of assessing individuals' sensitivity to rejection from others based on their physical appearance in investigations of excessive body image concerns.

Predicting interest in cosmetic surgery: interactive effects of appearance-based rejection sensitivity and negative appearance comments

This study investigated effects of appearance-based rejection sensitivity (Appearance-RS) - the dispositional tendency to anxiously expect rejection based on one's appearance - in a sample of 133 American college students. Participants were randomly assigned to write an essay about either a negative or positive appearance comment they had received in the past. Compared to participants with lower Appearance-RS, those with higher Appearance-RS felt more rejected and expressed greater interest in cosmetic surgery after recalling a negative versus positive appearance comment. Content analysis of the essays revealed that negative appearance comments were most often made in reference to one's body weight/shape/size; positive appearance comments were most often made in reference to one's overall appearance. Peers/friends/romantic partners were the most frequently cited source of both positive and negative appearance comments. Overall, this research suggests that the interaction between the person and the situation is important to consider when predicting cosmetic surgery interest.