Gender-Related Discourses as Mediators in the Association Between Internalization of the Thin-Body Ideal and Indicants of Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating

Bystanders' Victim Blaming and Minimizing Consequences of Weight-Based Cyberhate Attacks: The Roles of anti-Fat Attitudes, Body-Positive Online Content, and Gender

Physical appearance and, specifically, weight are common reasons for cyberhate attacks among adolescents. Using a between-subject experimental design, this study focuses on the bystanders of such attacks on Instagram. We investigate bystanders' assessments in the form of two moral disengagement (MD) mechanisms-victim blaming and minimizing consequences-and we compare the assessments of attacks that are diversified by the victim's weight (i.e., a victim who is plus-size and a victim who is thinner). We also examine the moderating roles of bystanders' prejudice against people who are plus-size in the form of the so-called anti-fat attitudes, their frequency of viewing body-positive online content, and gender. The study's data come from an online survey conducted in 2020 with a representative sample of 658 Czech adolescents, aged 13-18. We tested our hypotheses with structural equation modeling. The results show that the two MD mechanisms work differently. The victim's displayed weight affected the bystanders' tendency to victim blame: adolescents blamed the victim who is plus-size more than the victim who is thinner, but the victim's weight made no difference in minimizing the consequences of the incident. A moderating effect for anti-fat attitudes and gender was found for victim blaming. Bystanders with higher anti-fat attitudes and boys blamed the victim who is plus-size more than the victim who is thinner. On the other hand, there was no effect for the frequency of viewing body-positive online content for either of the MD mechanisms. The results are discussed with regard to the differences between the two mechanisms and the practical implications for educational and prevention programs for youth.

The developmental theory of embodiment: Quantitative measurement of facilitative and adverse experiences in the social environment

The present program of research involved developing and evaluating three fully structured measures of facilitative and adverse social experiences during adulthood described by the developmental theory of embodiment (DTE) as shaping the quality of the experiences of living in the body. The Physical Freedom Scale - adulthood (PFSa) addresses physical experiences, the Mental Freedom Scale - adulthood (MFSa) assesses exposure to social environments that either facilitate or constrict freedom from constraining social discourses, and the Social Power and Relational Connections Scale - adulthood (SPRCSa) covers experiences of accessing, or being barred from, social power and empowering relational connections. The pilot study ( N = 92) involved item revision and deletion. Study 1 (N = 412) involved factor analyses of the three scales, leading to the emergence of six, three, and four factors in the PFSa, MFSa, and SPRCSa, respectively. The study also provided initial support for the internal consistency of the scales and subscales, as well as their convergent validity. Study 2 (N = 373) confirmed the factor structure of the scales from study 2. Study 3 (N = 64) demonstrated that the scales and their factors were stable over a 3-week period. The scales can be used to study integrated sociocultural models of embodiment.

Expanding the social lens: A quantitative study of the developmental theory of embodiment

The developmental theory of embodiment (DTE) is a research-based theory of social factors that shape the experience of embodiment, a construct that is strongly correlated with body esteem and body appreciation. The DTE is anchored in prospective and retrospective qualitative research studies with cisgender girls and women of diverse backgrounds. This paper describes the first comprehensive quantitative study of factors in the social environment the DTE delineates as shaping the experience of embodiment involving a cross-sectional design, among 412 cisgender women. The 13 quantitative social factors correlated positively with the Experience of Embodiment Scale and accounted together for over 60% of its score variance. The findings of significant positive correlations between all social factors and of a large shared variance amongst these factors in a simultaneous multiple regression predicting the experience of embodiment are in line with the DTE and with a multi-level model of causality central to public health perspectives, whereby social structures and positions, such as those related to gender, shape multiple lower-level protective and risk factors. Future studies of the theory should include prospective designs with samples of varied backgrounds along different dimensions of social location.

Gender Socialization as a Predictor of Psychosocial Well-Being in Young Women with Breast Cancer

This study aimed to explore the relationship between gender socialization and psychosocial well-being among young women diagnosed with and treated for breast cancer. A total of 113 women between the ages of 18-49 completed a one-time questionnaire package. Four key measures of gender socialization were included: Gender Role Socialization Scale (GRSS), Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS), Mental Freedom Scale (MFS), and Silencing the Self Scale (SSS). Two measures of psychosocial well-being were included: Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Breast (FACT-B) and Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES). Correlational and regression analyses were conducted to assess the relationship between gender socialization variables and well-being. In multiple regression models, GRSS and MFS added significant increments to the prediction of variance of the FACT-B (R² = 23.0%). In contrast, the OBCS and MFS added significant increments to the prediction of variance of the EES (R² = 47.0%). Findings suggested that women with greater endorsements to proscribed gender socialization were associated with poor well-being scores. Women who endorsed a critical stance, resisting traditional gender-role expectations, objectification pressures, and other social discourses, were associated with greater well-being scores. Future studies are needed to examine the impact of gender socialization on the well-being of young people with breast cancer.

A systematic review of maladaptive interpersonal behaviors and eating disorder psychopathology

While maladaptive interpersonal behaviors have been implicated in models of psychopathology, particularly depression, maladaptive interpersonal behaviors have received limited attention in the eating disorder (ED) literature. Further, the extant literature on maladaptive interpersonal behaviors in relation to ED psychopathology has yet to be synthesized. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to characterize the literature on maladaptive interpersonal behaviors and ED psychopathology. Inclusion criteria for the review were: availability of the study in English, empirical journal article, inclusion of human subjects, and reporting an association between at least one maladaptive interpersonal behavior and one measure of ED psychopathology. Databases searched were PsycInfo and PubMed across all dates (up to September 2020). Data was extracted from articles, and main findings were synthesized; quality scores were provided using a modified version of the Newcastle Ottawa Scale. There were 35 studies with 36 independent samples included in the review. Most studies evidenced significant bivariate associations between maladaptive interpersonal behaviors and ED psychopathology. That is, higher levels of maladaptive interpersonal behaviors were generally associated with greater disordered eating, bulimic symptoms, and body image concerns. Although limited to a minority of studies, some studies identified prospective associations and significant mediators and moderators of associations. This systematic review supports further research on maladaptive interpersonal behaviors and ED psychopathology. Given a number of significant limitations in the literature identified in this review, there are an array of avenues for future research on maladaptive interpersonal behaviors and ED psychopathology.

Disordered eating through the lens of positive psychology: The role of embodiment, self-esteem and identity coherence

Applying a positive psychology perspective, this study aimed to identify potential intra-individual factors that might protect against the development of disordered eating in a community sample of young women and men (N = 510; 56 % women; M_age = 24.3). Based on existing literature, the study included the general resilience factors of self-esteem and identity coherence as well as two dimensions of positive embodiment (positive body connection and comfort, and agency and functionality). All factors were negatively correlated with disordered eating among women and men. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that positive embodiment, specifically positive body connection, was a significant predictor of lower degrees of disordered eating symptoms in both women and men, followed by self-esteem. The overall prediction model accounted for 42.6 % in the variation of disordered eating symptoms for women and 23.9 % for men. Prevention and treatment interventions promoting health factors that protect against the development of eating disorders are much needed. The present study informs such efforts by emphasizing the promotion of positive embodiment.

'Silencing the self' and women's mental health problems: A narrative review

In the context of women's mental health several propositions have been made to account for their increased susceptibility to certain psychiatric illnesses. However, given the topic's multifacetedness, no single explanation is found sufficient in itself. 'Silencing the Self' theory sheds new light on this issue because it acknowledges the importance of social and cultural processes. Besides with its relational perspective, it centers on the primacy of core relationships and its influence on a woman's mental health. Even though, since its inception three decades ago, the theory has been studied in relation to various psychological and physical disorders; it has hitherto received inadequate attention by scholars. Nonetheless, it has the potential to inform our understanding when formulating women's mental health issues. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive narrative account of the extant work on 'silencing the self' in relation to psychiatric illnesses like depression, eating disorder and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. It attempts to synthesize the work done till date, as a starting point for further investigation of unexamined areas.

Self-silencing and women's health: A review

The connection between gender and health has intrigued health professionals in the last few decades. Silencing-the-self theory has brought a considerable clarity in this matter. After around three decades of the theory, the literature related to the theory has immensely flourished and has covered different branches of psychology. The aim of the present work is to provide a comprehensive picture of the qualitative and quantitative research findings that have connected self-silencing to health and well-being of women. This article presents a critical review of relevant articles. These articles have used the self-silencing theory as an explanation of women's higher vulnerability to certain diseases as well as their experience with them. Self-silencing has been found to explain the gender gap in psychiatric disorders like depression, eating disorders and so on. It also influences the resilience and therapeutic effects among female patients with chronic conditions such as cancer, AIDS and so on. Moreover, self-silencing has also been found to be associated with women's health issues such as pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder. The present study discusses the existing literature in a narrative manner along with suggesting some relevant research gaps that can be worth exploring in the future.

Eating Attitudes of Women Living With a Vision Impairment

Internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness and subscription to gender-based discourses are significant predictors of disordered eating attitudes in fully sighted women. Yet, whether these variables predict the disordered eating attitudes of women who are legally blind is underexplored. In the current study, we examined how internalization of White European cultural standards of attractiveness and subscription to gender-based discourses (body surveillance and self-silencing) and body shame predicted the disordered eating attitudes of 80, primarily White, heterosexual, Australian women who are legally blind. Participants completed an online survey comprising existing validated measures of all variables. A path analysis was performed using the Hayes PROCESS approach. As predicted, in women living with vision impairment, body surveillance, self-silencing, and shame fully mediated the relation between internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness and disordered eating attitudes. Results showed that in much the same way as sighted women, women living with vision impairment are susceptible to internalizing harmful messages related to socio-cultural standards of attractiveness. We provide further support for including subscription to gender-based discourses in research on women’s body-image disturbances. Data will be available for other researchers from the author via email. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

Self-objectification and disordered eating: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Objectification theory posits that self-objectification increases risk for disordered eating.

METHOD

The current study sought to examine the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating using meta-analytic techniques.

RESULTS

Data from 53 cross-sectional studies (73 effect sizes) revealed a significant moderate positive overall effect (r = .39), which was moderated by gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and measurement of self-objectification. Specifically, larger effect sizes were associated with female samples and the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale. Effect sizes were smaller among heterosexual men and African American samples. Age, body mass index, country of origin, measurement of disordered eating, sample type and publication type were not significant moderators.

DISCUSSION

Overall, results from the first meta-analysis to examine the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating provide support for one of the major tenets of objectification theory and suggest that self-objectification may be a meaningful target in eating disorder interventions, though further work is needed to establish temporal and causal relationships. Findings highlight current gaps in the literature (e.g., limited representation of males, and ethnic and sexual minorities) with implications for guiding future research.

Exploring the integration of thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification in the prevention of eating disorders

Analyses of thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification were conducted within the context of a cognitive dissonance based eating disorder prevention program implemented in an undergraduate sorority. Participants completed self-report assessments at baseline (n=177), post-intervention (n=169), 5-month (n=159), and 1-year follow-up (n=105). Cross-sectional path analysis indicated that thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification predict each other and both predict body dissatisfaction, which in turn, predicts eating disorder symptoms. A longitudinal examination conducted using hierarchical linear modeling indicated that participants showed significant reductions in thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptoms after participating in the prevention program. Reductions of symptoms were maintained 1-year post-intervention, with the exception of self-objectification, which was significantly reduced up to 5-months post-intervention. Collectively, results suggest that targeting both thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification simultaneously within eating disorder prevention programs could increase the reduction of eating disorder symptoms.

Self-Silencing, Emotional Awareness, and Eating Behaviors in College Women

Self-silencing (or the suppression of expressing one’s thoughts, feelings, and needs) can have a negative impact on the mental health of women, from depression to disordered eating behaviors. The authors examined the relationship between self-silencing and disordered eating as well as intuitive eating. The authors also explored whether emotional awareness would moderate these relationships because conflicts over expressiveness are associated with emotional problems and eating disorders. The sample comprised 140 college women (52% White; 36% Black) under the age of 24 from a midwestern urban university. Their results revealed that emotional awareness moderated the relationships between self-silencing and disordered eating and intuitive eating. Specifically, when there were lower levels of emotional awareness, self-silencing with disordered eating and intuitive eating were unrelated; however, with higher levels of emotional awareness together with more self-silencing, participants presented with more disordered eating and less intuitive eating. The findings highlight the importance of supporting women’s emotional awareness in conjunction with their expressiveness of thoughts, feelings, and needs to increase intuitive eating and decrease disordered eating.