Effects of cyclopiazonic acid on contractility and ecto-ATPase activity in guinea-pig urinary bladder and vas deferens

Review Article: Safety Assessment of the Mycotoxin Cyclopiazonic Acid

Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) is an indol-tetramic acid mycotoxin and is produced by the nearly ubiquitous molds, Aspergillus and Penicillium. CPA produced by these molds has been identified in a number of food sources (including, but not limited to, grain, legumes, meat, milk, and cheese) and from parasitic infections of man and other animals. Few incidents of CPA mycotoxicoses have been reported because of the benign nature of the intoxication, the small amounts present, and its effects may be disguised with concurrent aflatoxicosis (some toxicity data may have been generated using aflatoxin-contaminated CPA). CPA is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and following oral administration; it has a half-life of approximately 30 hours and is excreted largely unchanged in the urine and feces. Cyclopiazonic acid is not considered to be a potent acute toxin as its oral LD50 in rodents is in the range of 30 to 70 mg/kg. Multiple dose studies also show a range of effects in several species and among mammalian models, the pig appears to be the most sensitive with a no-observable-effect level (NOEL) in the range of 1.0 mg/kg/day. The preponderance of evidence from the rat and other test animals supports this dose as a defensible estimate of a no effect level. The target organs of CPA toxicity appear to be muscle, hepatic tissue, and spleen, with a localization in the former, although a more apparent toxic change in the latter two. The toxicity and symptoms of CPA poisoning can be attributed to its ability to alter normal intracellular calcium flux through its inhibition of the reticular form of the Ca2+-ATPase pump. CPA was not teratogenic in mice. CPA is not considered a carcinogen and the weight of evidence militates against its characterization as a mutagen. Despite CPA-induced pathological changes ascribed to the spleen or bursa of Fabricius, there does not appear to be an effect on the immune system. In vitro studies imply a potential immunomodulatory effect of CPA, but in all of those reports very high concentrations of CPA were required and none of these findings have been supported with in vivo studies. Therefore, based on a NOEL of 1 mg/kg/day and accounting for species variation, an appropriate acceptable daily intake (ADI) would be approximately 10 μg/kg/day or 700 μg/day. In the context of human exposure, if the uppermost limit of CPA found in cheese is 4 μg/g and the average individual consumes 50 g of cheese daily, this allows an intake of 200 μg, less than one third of a traditionally established ADI.

β-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide acts at prejunctional adenosine A1 receptors to suppress inhibitory musculomotor neurotransmission in guinea pig colon and human jejunum

Intracellular microelectrodes were used to record neurogenic inhibitory junction potentials in the intestinal circular muscle coat. Electrical field stimulation was used to stimulate intramural neurons and evoke contraction of the smooth musculature. Exposure to β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (β-NAD) did not alter smooth muscle membrane potential in guinea pig colon or human jejunum. ATP, ADP, β-NAD, and adenosine, as well as the purinergic P2Y1 receptor antagonists MRS 2179 and MRS 2500 and the adenosine A1 receptor agonist 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine, each suppressed inhibitory junction potentials in guinea pig and human preparations. β-NAD suppressed contractile force of twitch-like contractions evoked by electrical field stimulation in guinea pig and human preparations. P2Y1 receptor antagonists did not reverse this action. Stimulation of adenosine A1 receptors with 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine suppressed the force of twitch contractions evoked by electrical field stimulation in like manner to the action of β-NAD. Blockade of adenosine A1 receptors with 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine suppressed the inhibitory action of β-NAD on the force of electrically evoked contractions. The results do not support an inhibitory neurotransmitter role for β-NAD at intestinal neuromuscular junctions. The data suggest that β-NAD is a ligand for the adenosine A1 receptor subtype expressed by neurons in the enteric nervous system. The influence of β-NAD on intestinal motility emerges from adenosine A1 receptor-mediated suppression of neurotransmitter release at inhibitory neuromuscular junctions.

Purinergic signalling in the urinary tract in health and disease

Purinergic signalling is involved in a number of physiological and pathophysiological activities in the lower urinary tract. In the bladder of laboratory animals there is parasympathetic excitatory cotransmission with the purinergic and cholinergic components being approximately equal, acting via P2X1 and muscarinic receptors, respectively. Purinergic mechanosensory transduction occurs where ATP, released from urothelial cells during distension of bladder and ureter, acts on P2X3 and P2X2/3 receptors on suburothelial sensory nerves to initiate the voiding reflex, via low threshold fibres, and nociception, via high threshold fibres. In human bladder the purinergic component of parasympathetic cotransmission is less than 3 %, but in pathological conditions, such as interstitial cystitis, obstructed and neuropathic bladder, the purinergic component is increased to 40 %. Other pathological conditions of the bladder have been shown to involve purinoceptor-mediated activities, including multiple sclerosis, ischaemia, diabetes, cancer and bacterial infections. In the ureter, P2X7 receptors have been implicated in inflammation and fibrosis. Purinergic therapeutic strategies are being explored that hopefully will be developed and bring benefit and relief to many patients with urinary tract disorders.

Nerve-released acetylcholine contracts urinary bladder smooth muscle by inducing action potentials independently of IP3-mediated calcium release

Nerve-released ACh is the main stimulus for contraction of urinary bladder smooth muscle (UBSM). Here, the mechanisms by which ACh contracts UBSM are explored by determining Ca(2+) and electrical signals induced by nerve-released ACh. Photolysis of caged inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) evoked Ca(2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Electrical field stimulation (20 Hz) induced Ca(2+) waves within the smooth muscle that were present only during stimulus application. Ca(2+) waves were blocked by inhibition of muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs) with atropine and depletion of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) stores with cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), and therefore likely reflect activation of IP(3) receptors (IP(3)Rs). Electrical field stimulation also increased excitability to induce action potentials (APs) that were accompanied by Ca(2+) flashes, reflecting Ca(2+) entry through voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels (VDCCs) during the action potential. The evoked Ca(2+) flashes and APs occurred as a burst with a lag time of approximately 1.5 s after onset of stimulation. They were not inhibited by blocking IP(3)-mediated Ca(2+) waves, but by blockers of mAChRs (atropine) and VDCCs (diltiazem). Nerve-evoked contractions of UBSM strips were greatly reduced by blocking VDCCs, but not by preventing IP(3)-mediated Ca(2+) signaling with cyclopiazonic acid or inhibition of PLC with U73122. These results indicate that ACh released from nerve varicosities induces IP(3)-mediated Ca(2+) waves during stimulation; but contrary to expectations, these signals do not appear to participate in contraction. In addition, our data provide compelling evidence that UBSM contractions evoked by nerve-released ACh depend on increased excitability and the resultant Ca(2+) entry through VDCCs during APs.

Nerve-evoked purinergic signalling suppresses action potentials, Ca2+ flashes and contractility evoked by muscarinic receptor activation in mouse urinary bladder smooth muscle

Contraction of urinary bladder smooth muscle (UBSM) is caused by the release of ATP and ACh from parasympathetic nerves. Although both purinergic and muscarinic pathways are important to contraction, their relative contributions and signalling mechanisms are not well understood. Here, the contributions of each pathway to urinary bladder contraction and the underlying electrical and Ca(2+) signalling events were examined in UBSM strips from wild type mice and mice deficient in P2X1 receptors (P2X1(-/-)) before and after pharmacological inhibition of purinergic and muscarinic receptors. Electrical field stimulation was used to excite parasympathetic nerves to increase action potentials, Ca(2+) flash frequency, and force. Loss of P2X1 function not only eliminated action potentials and Ca(2+) flashes during stimulation, but it also led to a significant increase in Ca(2+) flashes following stimulation and a corresponding increase in the force transient. Block of muscarinic receptors did not affect action potentials or Ca(2+) flashes during stimulation, but prevented them following stimulation. These findings indicate that nerve excitation leads to rapid engagement of smooth muscle P2X1 receptors to increase action potentials (Ca(2+) flashes) during stimulation, and a delayed increase in excitability in response to muscarinic receptor activation. Together, purinergic and muscarinic stimulation shape the time course of force transients. Furthermore, this study reveals a novel inhibitory effect of P2X1 receptor activation on subsequent increases in muscarinic-driven excitability and force generation.

ATP in central respiratory control: a three-part signaling system

The landmark demonstrations in 2005 that ATP released centrally during hypoxia and hypercapnia contributes to the respective ventilatory responses validated a decade-old hypothesis and ignited interest in the potential significance of P2 receptor signaling in central respiratory control. Our objective in this review is to provide a non-specialist overview of ATP signaling from the perspective that it is a three-part system where the net effects are determined by an interaction between the signaling actions of ATP and adenosine at P2 and P1 receptors, respectively, and a family of enzymes (ectonucleotidases) that breakdown ATP into adenosine. We review the rationale for the original interest in P2 signaling in respiratory control, the evolution of this hypothesis, and the mechanisms by which ATP might affect respiratory behaviour. The potential significance of P2 receptor, P1 receptor and ectonucleotidase diversity for the different compartments of the respiratory control system is also considered. We conclude with a look to future questions and technical challenges.

Schwann cells in rat vascular autonomic nerves activated via purinergic receptors

Schwann cells at the somatic neuromuscular junction possess adenosine receptors that when activated by the release of endogenous transmitter modulate quantal transmitter release. Recently, purinergic receptors have been shown to exist on Schwann cells of axon varicosities in visceral smooth muscle where they are activated by endogenous transmitters to give a calcium transient, although adenosine receptors were not identified. In the present work, we show that Schwann cells associated with axon varicosities of vascular smooth muscle, namely that of mesenteric blood vessels, possess both adenosine and purinergic receptors that when activated give rise to calcium transients in these cells. Then qualitative differences exist in the extent of adenosine and purine receptors that give rise to calcium transients in Schwann cells located in these different muscles.

Kinetics of urothelial ATP release

Recent reports have proposed that the urothelium can sense mechanical stretch and communicate this information to sensory afferent neurons by the release of ATP into the vicinity of P2X-containing neurons. This report investigates the bidirectional release of ATP by in vitro rabbit urothelium. ATP was measured using the luciferin-luciferase assay. Immediately after washing of both sides of the epithelium, there was a linear increase in ATP content in the mucosal compartment with a rate of 23 +/- 6.5 fmol x min(-1) x cm(-2) (n = 18). Serosal ATP content increased as a saturating exponential function, suggesting a constant rate of release and degradation of ATP by ectonucleotidases/exonucleotidases. The presence of a serosal ectonucleotidase/exonucleotidases was demonstrated by the time-dependent decrease in exogenously added ATP. The maximum rate of hydrolysis was 11 pmol x min(-1) x cm(-2) with a K(m) of 0.49 microM. The time course of serosal ATP release was modeled as a constant rate of release (d: mol x min(-1) x cm(-2)) and rate constant of hydrolysis (k(h): min(-)). In control conditions d was 18 fmol x min(-1) x cm(-2) and k(h) of 0.056 +/- 0.01 min(-) (n = 18). Steady-state serosal chamber content is 370 +/- 90 fmol/cm(2), and concentration is 50 +/- 1.2 x 10(-12) M. Stretching the tissue resulted in a transient fivefold increase in the rate of mucosal ATP release and a transient sixfold increase in serosal ATP release. Half-osmotic strength solutions increased mucosal release by 10-fold and serosal release by 5-fold. Tissue damage resulted in a step-increase in mucosal chamber ATP content by 6.6 +/- 1 pmol/cm(2) and serosal chamber ATP by 0.1 +/- 0.06 pmol/cm(2) (n = 5).

Detrusor overactivity induced by intravesical application of adenosine 5'-triphosphate under different delivery conditions in rats

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effects of intravesical application of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) on bladder activity to elucidate the role of urothelial barrier function and ecto-ATPase activity in the ATP-mediated mechanism inducing detrusor overactivity.

METHODS

Continuous cystometry by an intravesical catheter inserted from the bladder dome was performed in conscious female rats.

RESULTS

ATP solutions adjusted to pH 6.0 did not elicit significant detrusor overactivity at a concentration of 60 mM. However, in bladders pretreated with protamine sulfate (10 mg/mL) to increase urothelial permeability, ATP solution (pH 6.0) induced detrusor overactivity by decreasing the intercontraction intervals. These irritant effects of ATP after protamine treatment were antagonized by P2X receptor antagonists, such as pyridoxal-5-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (70 micromol/kg) and 2',3'-O-(2,4,6, trinitrophenyl) ATP (30 micromol/kg). These were also suppressed in rats pretreated with systemic capsaicin (125 mg/kg subcutaneously). Alpha,beta-methylene ATP (5 mM, pH 6.0) or ATP (60 mM, pH6) after intravesical infusion of 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (5 mM, pH 6.0), an ecto-ATPase inhibitor, induced detrusor overactivity without protamine pretreatment, but the reduction in intercontraction intervals was smaller compared with that with ATP after protamine treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Low permeability of bladder epithelium and ecto-ATPase activity can prevent ATP activation of subepithelial P2X receptors to induce bladder overactivity. Thus, enhanced penetration of endogenous ATP owing to urothelial damage may contribute to urinary frequency and bladder pain in hypersensitive bladder disorders such as interstitial cystitis.

Pharmacological modulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum function in smooth muscle

The sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (SR/ER) is the primary storage and release site of intracellular calcium (Ca2+) in many excitable cells. The SR is a tubular network, which in smooth muscle (SM) cells distributes close to cellular periphery (superficial SR) and in deeper aspects of the cell (deep SR). Recent attention has focused on the regulation of cell function by the superficial SR, which can act as a buffer and also as a regulator of membrane channels and transporters. Ca2+ is released from the SR via two types of ionic channels [ryanodine- and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated], whereas accumulation from thecytoplasm occurs exclusively by an energy-dependent sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase pump (SERCA). Within the SR, Ca2+ is bound to various storage proteins. Emerging evidence also suggests that the perinuclear portion of the SR may play an important role in nuclear transcription. In this review, we detail the pharmacology of agents that alter the functions of Ca2+ release channels and of SERCA. We describe their use and selectivity and indicate the concentrations used in investigating various SM preparations. Important aspects of cell regulation and excitation-contractile activity coupling in SM have been uncovered through the use of such activators and inhibitors of processes that determine SR function. Likewise, they were instrumental in the recent finding of an interaction of the SR with other cellular organelles such as mitochondria. Thus, an appreciation of the pharmacology and selectivity of agents that interfere with SR function in SM has greatly assisted in unveiling the multifaceted nature of the SR.

N-linked oligosaccharides affect the enzymatic activity of CD39: diverse interactions between seven N-linked glycosylation sites

Rat CD39, a membrane-bound ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase that hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside tri- and diphosphates, has seven potential N-glycosylation sites at asparagine residues 73, 226, 291, 333, 375, 429, and 458. To determine their roles in the structure and function of CD39, we mutated these sites individually or in combination by replacing asparagine with serine or glutamine and analyzed the surface expression and the enzymatic activity of the mutants. The results indicate that rat CD39 can be glycosylated at all seven sites when expressed in COS7 cells. Glycosylation sites 73 at the N terminus, 333 in the middle, and 429 and 458 at the C terminus were principally required for cell surface appearance of enzymatically active CD39. Whereas deletion of these sites individually had modest effects on surface ATPase activity, some double deletions of these sites had major effects on both surface activity and expression. The importance of these N-glycosylation sites is recognizable in other members of the ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase family.

Varicosity-Schwann cell interactions mediated by ATP in the mouse vas deferens

Schwann cells, from a variety of sources, are known to possess P2Y purinergic metabotropic receptors. However, it is not known if Schwann cells associated with autonomic nerve terminals possess such receptors and if so whether these receptors are activated by the endogenous release of ATP from the nerve terminals. We show that such Schwann cells in the vas deferens give evoked calcium transients on nerve stimulation. These transients are mediated, at least in part, by the endogenous release of ATP, which acts on Schwann cell P2Y receptors to release calcium from within the cells. This work suggests the possibility that Schwann cells are active participants in the process of junctional transmission in the autonomic nervous system.

5'-p-Fluorosulfonylbenzoyl adenosine inhibits progesterone synthesis in human placental mitochondria

The human placental mitochondria have an ATP-diphosphohydrolase (apyrase) activity. In this paper we characterized the effect of 5'-p-fluorosulfonylbenzoyl adenosine (FSBA) on placental apyrase, and its repercussion on progesterone synthesis and oxygen consumption. Apyrase activity was inhibited by FSBA. Nucleosides tri- and diphosphates protected against FSBA inactivation, but divalent cations did not, indicating that FSBA attaches itself to an ATP-binding site of apyrase. In mitochondria, the inactivation of apyrase by FSBA was associated with inhibition of progesterone synthesis. Also, the oxygen consumption induced by ATP but not by ADP, was inhibited, clearly showing that FSBA exclusively inactivated the apyrase in human placental mitochondria. It is concluded that the apyrase activity is closely related to progesterone synthesis, probably associated with the cholesterol transport between mitochondrial membranes.

The contractile potency of adenosine triphosphate and ecto-adenosine triphosphatase activity in guinea pig detrusor and detrusor from patients with a stable, unstable or obstructed bladder

PURPOSE

We compared the potency of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its nonhydrolyzable analogue alpha,beta-methylene ATP for generating contractions in human detrusor smooth muscle from patients with a stable, unstable and obstructed bladders. The different ATP potencies were compared with the ecto-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) of these samples.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Contractile experiments were done in vitro by superfusing samples with purines and dose-response curves were generated. Ecto-ATPase activity was measured from the rate of ATP hydrolysis sensitive to the ecto-ATPase inhibitor ARL 67156 with a luciferin-luciferase assay.

RESULTS

ATP generated contractions with a mean EC50 of 933 microM. in tissue from stable bladders and was significantly more potent in tissue from unstable and obstructed bladders (EC50 141 and 172 microM., respectively). alpha,beta-methylene ATP was more potent in tissue from stable and unstable bladders (mean combined EC50 3 microM.). In guinea pig detrusor the mean EC50 for ATP and alpha,beta-methylene ATP was 138 and 5.5 microM., respectively. Mean total ATPase activity in unstable bladder biopsies plus or minus standard deviation was about 50% of that in stable bladder biopsies (2.54 +/- 1.50 versus 1.37 +/- 0.46 nmol. per second per mg. protein ). The ARL 67156 sensitive fraction was also significantly less in samples from unstable compared with stable bladders (mean 0.94 +/- 0.41 versus 0.36 +/- 0.26 nmol. per second mg. protein ).

CONCLUSIONS

The greater potency of ATP for generating contractions in detrusor from unstable bladders may be due to reduced extracellular hydrolysis, allowing purine greater access to detrusor smooth muscle. This finding may explain atropine resistant purine based contractions in detrusor from unstable bladders.

Inhibitory effects of some purinergic agents on ecto-ATPase activity and pattern of stepwise ATP hydrolysis in rat liver plasma membranes

Inhibitory effects of various purinergic compounds on the Mg(2+)-dependent enzymatic hydrolysis of [(3)H]ATP in rat liver plasma membranes were evaluated. Rat liver enzyme ecto-ATPase has a broad nucleotide-hydrolyzing activity, displays Michaelis-Menten kinetics with K(m) for ATP of 368+/-56 microM and is not sensitive to classical inhibitors of the ion-exchange and intracellular ATPases. P2-antagonists and diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap(4)A) progressively and non-competitively inhibited ecto-ATPase activity with the following rank order of inhibitory potency: suramin (pIC(50), 4.570)>Reactive blue 2 (4.297)&z.Gt;Ap(4)A (3. 268)>pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS) (2. 930). Slowly hydrolyzable P2 agonists ATPgammaS, ADPbetaS, alpha, beta-methylene ATP and beta,gamma-methylene ATP as well as the diadenosine polyphosphates Ap(3)A and Ap(5)A did not exert any inhibitory effects on the enzyme activity at concentration ranges of 10(-4)-10(-3) M. Thin-layer chromatography analysis of the formation of [(3)H]ATP metabolites indicated the presence of other enzyme activities on liver surface (ecto-ADPase and 5'-nucleotidase), participating in concert with ecto-ATPase in the nucleotide hydrolysis through the stepwise reactions ATP-->ADP-->AMP-->adenosine. A similar pattern of sequential [(3)H]ATP dephosphorylation still occurs in the presence of ecto-ATPase inhibitors suramin, Ap(4)A and PPADS, but the appearance of the ultimate reaction product, adenosine, was significantly delayed. In contrast, hydrolysis of [(3)H]ATP in the presence of Reactive blue 2 only followed the pattern ATP-->ADP, with formation of the subsequent metabolites AMP and adenosine being virtually eliminated. These data suggest that although nucleotide-binding sites of ecto-ATPase are distinct from those of P2 receptors, some purinergic agonists and antagonists can potentiate cellular responses to extracellular ATP through non-specific inhibition of the ensuing pathways of purine catabolism.

A novel ATP-diphosphohydrolase from human term placental mitochondria

This report describes an ATP-diphosphohydrolase activity associated with the inner membrane of human term placental mitochondria. An enriched fraction containing 30 per cent of the total protein and 80 per cent of the total ATP-diphosphohydrolase activity was obtained from submitochondrial particles. ATP-diphosphohydrolase activity was characterized in this fraction. The enzyme had a pH optimum of 8 and catalysed the hydrolysis of triphospho- and diphosphonucleosides other than ATP or ADP. Pyrophosphate was also hydrolysed, but AMP or other monoester phosphates were not. The activity of ATP-diphosphohydrolase was dependent on Mg(2 + ), Ca(2 + )or Mn(2 + )and the enzyme substrate was the cation-nucleotide complex. An excess of free cation produced inhibition.ATP-diphosphohydrolase activity was stimulated at micromolar concentrations of calcium or magnesium in the presence of La-PPi. Negative cooperativity kinetics was observed with all substrates tested. The V(max)ranged from 150 to 300nmol of Pi released/mg/min. The [S](0.5)for nucleotides was 1-10m m and 182m m for PPi. The enzyme was inhibited by orthovanadate, but not by l -phenylalanine, oligomycin, sodium azide, P(1),P(5)-di(adenosine-5')pentaphosphate or sodium fluoride.The experimental evidence showing absence of inhibition by sodium azide and sodium fluoride, hydrolysis of pyrophosphate but not of monoester phosphates, and negative cooperativity suggested that this enzyme was a novel ATP-diphosphohydrolase.

Modulatory effects of type-C natriuretic peptide on sympathetic cotransmission in the rat isolated tail artery

1. Rat type-C natriuretic peptide (CNP) has been studied for its effects on the neurogenically induced overflow of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP), adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP), adenosine (ADO) and noradrenaline (NA) in endothelium-free segments of rat isolated tail artery. The overflow of each was evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS) of 0.5 ms pulses at 8 Hz for 3 min and the amount of ATP, ADP, AMP and ADO was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-fluorescent detection, while the amount of NA was quantified by HPLC-electrochemical detection. 2. Type-C natriuretic peptide (100 nmol/L) was found to cause a significant reduction of the overflow of all adenine purines and NA. However, at lower concentrations (1 and 10 nmol/L), CNP caused a significant reduction of the overflow of NA but did not change ATP overflow. 3. The overflow of ADP, AMP and ADO was significantly reduced by either concentration of CNP, so that the ratio ATP:ADP was diminished from 1:2 in controls to 1:1 after 1 nmol/L CNP and to 1:1.2 after 10 nmol/L CNP. 4. The production of inorganic phosphate (Pi) in response to the exogenous application of ATP was significantly reduced by 1, 10 or 100 nmol/L CNP. 5. Type-C natriuretic peptide exerts neuromodulatory effects on the neurogenically induced release of the cotransmitters ATP and NA in rat tail artery, consisting of an inhibition of the release of both ATP and NA. This effect is accompanied by inhibition of the breakdown of ATP by ecto-ATPases. Either effect results in apparent CNP-induced differential modulation of the overflow of the cotransmitters ATP and NA.

Steady-state binding of [3H]ATP to rat liver plasma membranes and competition by various purinergic agonists and antagonists

Steady-state analysis of nucleotide-binding sites on rat liver plasma membranes was carried out using 3H-labelled ATP as radioligand under complete inhibition of ecto-ATPase activity by excess EDTA. Binding of [3H]ATP to the membranes is saturable, reversible and apparently involves one population of specific binding sites with Kd of about 90 nM and binding capacity (Bmax) of 15 pmol/mg protein. A broad spectrum of purinergic agonists and antagonists was examined as potential inhibitors of the measured binding. The displacement studies showed the following rank order of inhibitory potency for [3H]ATP-binding sites (pIC50 values in parentheses): ATPgammaS (7.49)>2-MeSATP (7.18)>ATP (6.91)>ADPbetaS (6.64)>/=ADP (6.56)>>RB2 (6.14)>>suramin (5.40)>>Ap4A (4. 57)>alpha,beta-MeATP (4.19)>/=beta,gamma-MeATP (3.97). AMP, adenosine, Ap5A, PPADS, beta-glycerophosphate as well as non-adenine nucleoside triphosphates GTP, UTP and CTP did not exert any effect on the measured binding at concentration ranges of 10-6-10-4 M. In order to ascertain whether ATP and its analogues are capable of interacting with the same binding domain, 2-MeSATP and ADP were treated as alternative ligands that could compete with unlabelled ATP for its binding sites. A 2-fold increase of Kd value for ATP-receptor interaction was observed in the presence of 2-MeSATP (60 nM) or ADP (250 nM) without any modulation of Bmax value, confirming that inhibitory effects of these compounds are competitive in nature. These studies demonstrate that ATP and its analogues are able to interact with a single binding domain on liver plasma membranes, which may be identified as ligand-binding component of P2 purinoceptors of the P2Y1 subtype.

Electromechanical coupling in human vas deferens: effects of agents that modulate intracellular release of calcium

1. The effects of ryanodine, cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) and caffeine on electromechanical coupling in human vas deferens were investigated. 2. High [K+]o (120 mM) evoked nifedipine-sensitive contractions of longitudinal and circular muscle which consisted of initial and secondary components. 3. Exposures to ryanodine (< or =10 microM) or CPA (< or = 3 microM) induced a change of basal tension, and higher doses (30 microM) induced intermittent rhythmic contractions of both muscle types in the quiescent tissue. In the presence of the drugs, contraction to high [K+]o was preceded by marked rhythmic activity. 4. In circular muscle, ryanodine (1-30 microM) or CPA (1-30 microM) reduced both components of contractions to high [K+]o. In longitudinal muscle, the drugs enhanced the initial component and prolonged the secondary component. High doses (> or = 10 microM) produced variable effects on the initial component. 5. Caffeine (20 mM) reliably contracted longitudinal, but not circular muscle. Pre-exposures to caffeine enhanced both components in the post-caffeine contractions of circular muscle to high [K+]o. In longitudinal muscle, only the initial component (post-caffeine) was enhanced. 6. Contractions evoked in longitudinal muscle by caffeine were not blocked by ryanodine (30 microM) or CPA (30 microM). However, the enhancement of post-caffeine contractions to high [K+]o was inhibited. 7. These results show that ryanodine and CPA produced comparable effects on the excitability of longitudinal and circular muscle in the quiescent tissue, but electromechanical coupling was affected differently. The findings suggest that the muscle types utilize different mechanisms to regulate elevations in cytosolic Ca2+ during stimulation. 8. Electromechanical coupling in both muscle types involves Ca2+ influx via nifedipine-sensitive voltage-operated calcium channels and activation of ryanodine-sensitive calcium-induced calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). In longitudinal muscle, the SR also buffers increases in cytosolic Ca2+ via a pharmacologically distinct Ca2+ compartment (caffeine releasable but ryanodine/CPA-insensitive). In circular muscle, the SR (ryanodine/CPA-sensitive) serves mainly in the regulation of excitability of the quiescent tissue.

High affinity P2x-purinoceptor binding sites for [35S]-adenosine 5'-O-[3-thiotriphosphate] in rat vas deferens membranes

1. The binding sites labelled by [35S]-adenosine 5'-O-[3-thiotriphosphate]([35S]-ATP gamma S) at 4 degrees C in rat vas deferens membranes were studied and compared to the sites labelled by [3H]-alpha,beta-methylene ATP ([3H]-alpha beta meATP) to ascertain whether [35S]-ATP gamma S can be used to label the P2x purinoceptor. 2. In the presence of 4 mM CaCl2, the binding of 0.2 nM [35S]-ATP gamma S to vas deferens membranes was increased 3.4 fold, when compared to studies performed in the absence of calcium. However, binding did not appear to be solely to P2x purinoceptors since [35S]-ATP gamma S labelled a heterogeneous population of sites and about 72% of the sites possessed high affinity (pIC50 = 7.5) for guanosine 5'-O-[3-thiotriphosphate] (GTP gamma S). Even in the presence of 1 microM GTP gamma S, to occlude the sites with high affinity for GTP gamma S, the binding of [35S]-ATP gamma S was heterogeneous and since there was also evidence of extensive metabolism of ATP in the presence of calcium, the binding of [35S]-ATP gamma S under these conditions was not studied further. 3. In the absence of calcium ions, [35S]-ATP gamma S bound to a single population of sites (pKD = 9.23; Bmax = 4270 fmol mg-1 protein). Binding reached steady state within 3 h (t1/2 = 38 min), was stable for a further 4 h and was readily reversible upon addition of 10 microM unlabelled ATP gamma S (t1/2 = 45 min). In competition studies the binding of 0.2 nM [35S]-ATP gamma S was inhibited by a number of P2x purinoceptor agonists and antagonists, but not by adenosine receptor agonists, staurosporine (1 microM) or several ATPase inhibitors. The rank order of agonist affinity estimates (pIC50 values) in competing for the [35S]-ATP gamma S binding sites was: ATP (9.01), 2-methylthio- ATP (8.79), ATP gamma S (8.73), alpha beta meATP (7.57), ADP (7.24), beta, gamma-methylene ATP (7.18), L-beta, gamma-methylene ATP (5.83), alpha, beta-methylene ADP (4.36). 4. Affinity estimates (pIC50 values) for the P2x purinoceptor antagonists, suramin (5.20), pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid (4.23), pyridoxal 5-phosphate (3.42), cibacron blue (5.70) and Evan's blue (5.79) were broadly similar to those obtained at the [3H]-alpha beta meATP binding sites in vas deferens. However, ATP, 2-methylthio-ATP, ATP gamma S and ADP displayed 17-512 fold higher affinity for the [35S]-ATP gamma S, than for the [3H]-alpha beta meATP binding sites, whereas alpha beta meATP and L-beta, gamma-methylene ATP displayed 5 and 28 fold, respectively, higher affinity for the [3H]-alpha beta meATP than for the [35S]-ATP gamma S binding sites. 5. The differences in agonist affinity for the [35S]-ATP gamma S and [3H]-alpha beta meATP binding sites probably reflect the fact that the former sites were labelled in the absence of calcium, while the latter sites were labelled in its presence. This could differentially affect ionisation state and/or metabolism of the nucleotides when using the two radioligands. Since affinity estimates for ATP, 2-methylthio-ATP, ATP gamma S, alpha beta meATP and L-beta, gamma-methylene ATP were different when calcium ions were omitted in studies using [3H]-alpha beta meATP but similar to the affinity estimates obtained at the [35S]-ATP gamma S binding sites labelled in the absence of calcium, it is likely that [35S]-ATP gamma S and [3H]-alpha beta meATP label the same sites in rat vas deferens. 6. We conclude that, in the absence of divalent cations, [35S]-ATP gamma S labels P2x purinoceptors in rat vas deferens and as such may represent a new, high specific activity, radioligand for the study of such receptors.

Inhibitory action of PPADS on relaxant responses to adenine nucleotides or electrical field stimulation in guinea-pig taenia coli and rat duodenum

1. The effect of pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid (PPADS) on the relaxant response to adenine nucleotides was examined in the carbachol-contracted guinea-pig taenia coli and rat duodenum, two tissues possessing P2y-purinoceptors. In addition, in the taenia coli PPADS was investigated for its effect on relaxations evoked by adenosine, noradrenaline and electrical field stimulation. In order to assess the selectivity of PPADS between P2-purinoceptor blockade and ectonucleotidase activity, its influence on ATP degradation was studied in guinea-pig taenia coli. 2. The resulting rank order of potency for the adenine nucleotides in guinea-pig taenia coli was: 2-methylthio ATP >> ATP > alpha,beta-methylene ATP with the respective pD2-values 7.96 +/- 0.08 (n = 23), 6.27 +/- 0.12 (n = 21) and 5.88 +/- 0.04 (n = 24). 3. In guinea-pig taenia coli, PPADS (10-100 microM) caused a consistent dextral shift of the concentration-response curve (CRC) of 2-methylthio ATP and ATP resulting in a biphasic Schild plot. A substantial shift was only observed at 100 microM PPADS, the respective pA2-values at this particular concentration were 5.26 +/- 0.16 (n = 5) and 5.15 +/- 0.13 (n = 6). Lower concentrations of PPADS (3-30 microM) antagonized the relaxant effects to alpha,beta-methylene ATP in a surmountable manner. An extensive shift of the CRC was produced only by 30 microM PPADS (pA2 = 5.97 +/- 0.08, n = 6), and the Schild plot was again biphasic. 4. The relaxant responses to electrical field stimulation (80 V, 0.3 ms, 5 s, 0.5-16 Hz) in guinea-pigtaenia coli were concentration-dependently inhibited by PPADS (10-100 microM).5. In guinea-pig taenia coli, the potency of ATP in inducing relaxation appeared to be independent of its rate of degradation by ecto-nucleotidases, since the Km-value (366 microM) obtained in the enzyme assay was much higher than the functional EC50-value (0.45 microM) of ATP. PPADS (3-100 microM) was only weakly active in inhibiting ecto-nucleotidase activity leaving a residual activity of 81.8 +/- 5.1% at 100 microM.Enzyme inhibition by PPADS was concentration-independent and non-competitive.6. In rat duodenum, the rank order of potency was: 2-methylthio ATP >ATP> >alpha,beta-methylene ATP,the respective pD2-values being 6.98 +/- 0.04 (n = 76), 6.26 +/- 0.02 (n = 6) and 4.83 +/- 0.02 (n = 6). Among these agonists, 2-methylthio ATP displayed the lowest apparent efficacy.7. The CRC of 2-methylthio ATP in rat duodenum was shifted to the right by PPADS (10-100 microM) ina concentration-dependent manner, and Schild analysis gave a pA2-value of 5.09 +/- 0.06 (slope = 1.02,n=14).8 PPADS was without any effect on the carbachol-induced contraction in guinea-pig taenia coli or rat duodenum and on the relaxation to noradrenaline or adenosine in guinea-pig taenia coli.9 In conclusion, the antagonistic properties of PPADS at the taenia coli and rat duodenum P2y-purinoceptors were different from those recently described at the P2x-subtype: inhibition of P2y-purinoceptor-mediated responses was observed at higher concentrations (3-100 microM vs. 1-10 (30) microM).Furthermore, we conclude that in addition to the classical P2y-subtype, which is largely PPADS-resistant,the guinea-pig taenia coli may be endowed with a distinct relaxation-mediating P2-purinoceptor subtype which is sensitive to PPADS.

Functional consequences of inhibition of nucleotide breakdown in rat vas deferens: a study with Evans blue

The effect of Evans blue on nucleotide breakdown, nucleotide-evoked contractions and electrically evoked contractions, overflow of ATP and overflow of tritium (after labelling with [3H]-noradrenaline) was studied in rat vas deferens. Pieces of vas deferens degraded 83 to 85% of added ATP, ADP and 2-methyl-thio ATP (all 100 microM) over 30 min. Evans blue (100 microM) reduced this degradation to 22 to 26%. Nucleotides elicited contraction with potency declining in the order alpha,beta-methylene ATP > 2-methylthio ATP > ATP > ADP. Evans blue (100 microM) shifted the concentration-response curve of alpha, beta-methylene ATP to the right and increased the maximum. Concentration-response curves of ATP, ADP and 2-methylthio ATP, in contrast, were shifted to the left and responses were much potentiated. In the presence of Evans blue, the rank order of potency was ATP > 2-methylthio ATP > alpha, beta-methylene ATP > ADP. Electrical field stimulation (100 pulses at 10 Hz) elicited contraction and an overflow of tritium and ATP. Evans blue (100 microM) did not alter the contraction and the evoked overflow of tritium but increased 24-fold the evoked overflow of ATP. The results indicate that Evans blue may serve as an-albeit impure-ecto-nucleotidase inhibitor in functional experiments. Such experiments demonstrate that the low potency of ATP (and also ADP and 2-methylthio ATP) in eliciting contraction, and the small size of the overflow of ATP upon sympathetic nerve stimulation, are due to rapid breakdown.