1
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Nag JK, Appasamy P, Malka H, Sedley S, Bar-Shavit R. New Target(s) for RNF43 Regulation: Implications for Therapeutic Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8083. [PMID: 39125653 PMCID: PMC11311281 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells depend on specific oncogenic pathways or present a genetic alteration that leads to a particular disturbance. Still, personalized and targeted biological therapy remains challenging, with current efforts generally yielding disappointing results. Carefully assessing onco-target molecular pathways can, however, potently assist with such efforts for the selection of patient populations that would best respond to a given drug treatment. RNF43, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that negatively regulates Wnt/frizzled (FZD) receptors by their ubiquitination, internalization, and degradation, controls a key pathway in cancer. Recently, additional target proteins of RNF43 were described, including p85 of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2), a G-protein-coupled receptor that potently induces β-catenin stabilization, independent of Wnts. RNF43 mutations with impaired E3 ligase activity were found in several types of cancers (e.g., gastrointestinal system tumors and endometrial and ovarian cancer), pointing to a high dependency on FZD receptors and possibly PAR2 and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. The development of drugs toward these targets is essential for improved treatment of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Rachel Bar-Shavit
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (J.K.N.); (P.A.); (H.M.); (S.S.)
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2
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Collie GW, Clark MA, Keefe AD, Madin A, Read JA, Rivers EL, Zhang Y. Screening Ultra-Large Encoded Compound Libraries Leads to Novel Protein-Ligand Interactions and High Selectivity. J Med Chem 2024; 67:864-884. [PMID: 38197367 PMCID: PMC10823476 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
The DNA-encoded library (DEL) discovery platform has emerged as a powerful technology for hit identification in recent years. It has become one of the major parallel workstreams for small molecule drug discovery along with other strategies such as HTS and data mining. For many researchers working in the DEL field, it has become increasingly evident that many hits and leads discovered via DEL screening bind to target proteins with unique and unprecedented binding modes. This Perspective is our attempt to analyze reports of DEL screening with the purpose of providing a rigorous and useful account of the binding modes observed for DEL-derived ligands with a focus on binding mode novelty.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Ying Zhang
- X-Chem,
Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts 02453, United States
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3
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He Y, Wu S, Yuan Y, Sun Y, Ai Q, Zhou R, Chai G, Chen D, Hu H. Remodeling tumor immunosuppression with molecularly imprinted nanoparticles to enhance immunogenic cell death for cancer immunotherapy. J Control Release 2023; 362:44-57. [PMID: 37579978 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023]
Abstract
Insufficient tumor accumulation and distribution of immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducer as well as low antitumor immunity severely restrict the therapeutic efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. Tumor associated fibroblasts (TAFs) are important in tumor extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and immune evasion. Reprogramming tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment via TAFs regulation might present a promising way for enhanced ICD effect and complete tumor elimination. In this study, TAFs derived tryptase imprinted nanoparticles (DMSN@MIPs) are developed to modulate TAFs and improve tumor immunotherapy effect of doxorubicin liposomes (DOX/LIP). Tryptase (TPS), secreted by mast cells, are found to support tumor growth via transcriptionally activating TAFs to an activated state with increased expression of fibroblast activation marker α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). DMSN@MIPs canbe used as artificial antibodies, which effectively neutralize TPS, reduce TAFs activation, promote intra-tumor penetration of DOX/LIP and enhance ICD effect induced by DOX/LIP. In addition, the combined administration system remodels immunosuppressive microenvironment, which not only significantly up-regulates immune cells (DC cells, CD8+T cells, NK cells), but also significantly down-regulates immunosuppressive cells (Treg cells, MDSCs cells). Our results support the DMSN@MIPs canbe a promising approach to improve ICD efficacy in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan He
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Shiyang Wu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Yibo Yuan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Yueci Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Qiangjuan Ai
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Ruiqi Zhou
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Guozhi Chai
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Dawei Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China.
| | - Haiyang Hu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China.
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4
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Peach CJ, Edgington-Mitchell LE, Bunnett NW, Schmidt BL. Protease-activated receptors in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:717-785. [PMID: 35901239 PMCID: PMC9662810 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are signaling molecules that specifically control cellular functions by cleaving protease-activated receptors (PARs). The four known PARs are members of the large family of G protein-coupled receptors. These transmembrane receptors control most physiological and pathological processes and are the target of a large proportion of therapeutic drugs. Signaling proteases include enzymes from the circulation; from immune, inflammatory epithelial, and cancer cells; as well as from commensal and pathogenic bacteria. Advances in our understanding of the structure and function of PARs provide insights into how diverse proteases activate these receptors to regulate physiological and pathological processes in most tissues and organ systems. The realization that proteases and PARs are key mediators of disease, coupled with advances in understanding the atomic level structure of PARs and their mechanisms of signaling in subcellular microdomains, has spurred the development of antagonists, some of which have advanced to the clinic. Herein we review the discovery, structure, and function of this receptor system, highlight the contribution of PARs to homeostatic control, and discuss the potential of PAR antagonists for the treatment of major diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe J Peach
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Laura E Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
| | - Nigel W Bunnett
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Brian L Schmidt
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
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5
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Rivas CM, Yee MC, Addison KJ, Lovett M, Pal K, Ledford JG, Dussor G, Price TJ, Vagner J, DeFea KA, Boitano S. Proteinase-activated receptor-2 antagonist C391 inhibits Alternaria-induced airway epithelial signalling and asthma indicators in acute exposure mouse models. Br J Pharmacol 2022; 179:2208-2222. [PMID: 34841515 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Despite the availability of a variety of treatment options, many asthma patients have poorly controlled disease with frequent exacerbations. Proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) has been identified in preclinical animal models as important to asthma initiation and progression following allergen exposure. Proteinase activation of PAR2 raises intracellular Ca2+ , inducing MAPK and β-arrestin signalling in the airway, leading to inflammatory and protective effects. We have developed C391, a potent PAR2 antagonist effective in blocking peptidomimetic- and trypsin-induced PAR2 signalling in vitro as well as reducing inflammatory PAR2-associated pain in vivo. We hypothesized that PAR2 antagonism by C391 would attenuate allergen-induced acutely expressed asthma indicators in murine models. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We evaluated the ability of C391 to alter Alternaria alternata-induced PAR2 signalling pathways in vitro using a human airway epithelial cell line that naturally expresses PAR2 (16HBE14o-) and a transfected embryonic cell line (HEK 293). We next evaluated the ability for C391 to reduce A. alternata-induced acutely expressed asthma indicators in vivo in two murine strains. KEY RESULTS C391 blocked A. alternata-induced, PAR2-dependent Ca2+ and MAPK signalling in 16HBE14o- cells, as well as β-arrestin recruitment in HEK 293 cells. C391 effectively attenuated A. alternata-induced inflammation, mucus production, mucus cell hyperplasia and airway hyperresponsiveness in acute allergen-challenged murine models. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS To our best knowledge, this is the first demonstration of pharmacological intervention of PAR2 to reduce allergen-induced asthma indicators in vivo. These data support further development of PAR2 antagonists as potential first-in-class allergic asthma drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candy M Rivas
- Physiological Sciences Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Asthma and Airway Disease Research Center, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Michael C Yee
- Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Kenneth J Addison
- Asthma and Airway Disease Research Center, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Marissa Lovett
- Physiological Sciences Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Kasturi Pal
- Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Julie G Ledford
- Asthma and Airway Disease Research Center, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Gregory Dussor
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences and Center for Advanced Pain Studies, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
| | - Theodore J Price
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences and Center for Advanced Pain Studies, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
| | - Josef Vagner
- Bio5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Kathryn A DeFea
- Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, USA.,Corporate Headquarters, PARMedics, Inc., Temecula, California, USA
| | - Scott Boitano
- Physiological Sciences Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Asthma and Airway Disease Research Center, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Bio5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA.,Department of Physiology, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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6
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The development of proteinase-activated receptor-2 modulators and the challenges involved. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 48:2525-2537. [PMID: 33242065 PMCID: PMC7752072 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) has been extensively studied since its discovery in the mid-1990. Despite the advances in understanding PAR2 pharmacology, it has taken almost 25 years for the first inhibitor to reach clinical trials, and so far, no PAR2 antagonist has been approved for human use. Research has employed classical approaches to develop a wide array of PAR2 agonists and antagonists, consisting of peptides, peptoids and antibodies to name a few, with a surge in patent applications over this period. Recent breakthroughs in PAR2 structure determination has provided a unique insight into proposed PAR2 ligand binding sites. Publication of the first crystal structures of PAR2 resolved in complex with two novel non-peptide small molecule antagonists (AZ8838 and AZ3451) revealed two distinct binding pockets, originally presumed to be allosteric sites, with a PAR2 antibody (Fab3949) used to block tethered ligand engagement with the peptide-binding domain of the receptor. Further studies have proposed orthosteric site occupancy for AZ8838 as a competitive antagonist. One company has taken the first PAR2 antibody (MEDI0618) into phase I clinical trial (NCT04198558). While this first-in-human trial is at the early stages of the assessment of safety, other research into the structural characterisation of PAR2 is still ongoing in an attempt to identify new ways to target receptor activity. This review will focus on the development of novel PAR2 modulators developed to date, with an emphasis placed upon the advances made in the pharmacological targeting of PAR2 activity as a strategy to limit chronic inflammatory disease.
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7
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Small A, Fisher AD, Lee C, Colditz I. Analgesia for Sheep in Commercial Production: Where to Next? Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11041127. [PMID: 33920025 PMCID: PMC8070992 DOI: 10.3390/ani11041127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Increasing societal and customer pressure to provide animals with ‘a life worth living’ continues to apply pressure on industry to alleviate pain associated with husbandry practices, injury and illness. Although a number of analgesic solutions are now available for sheep, providing some amelioration of the acute pain responses, this review has highlighted a number of potential areas for further research. Abstract Increasing societal and customer pressure to provide animals with ‘a life worth living’ continues to apply pressure on livestock production industries to alleviate pain associated with husbandry practices, injury and illness. Over the past 15–20 years, there has been considerable research effort to understand and develop mitigation strategies for painful husbandry procedures in sheep, leading to the successful launch of analgesic approaches specific to sheep in a number of countries. However, even with multi-modal approaches to analgesia, using both local anaesthetic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), pain is not obliterated, and the challenge of pain mitigation and phasing out of painful husbandry practices remains. It is timely to review and reflect on progress to date in order to strategically focus on the most important challenges, and the avenues which offer the greatest potential to be incorporated into industry practice in a process of continuous improvement. A structured, systematic literature search was carried out, incorporating peer-reviewed scientific literature in the period 2000–2019. An enormous volume of research is underway, testament to the fact that we have not solved the pain and analgesia challenge for any species, including our own. This review has highlighted a number of potential areas for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Small
- CSIRO Agriculture & Food, Locked Bag 1, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia; (C.L.); (I.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-2-6776-1435
| | - Andrew David Fisher
- Animal Welfare Science Centre, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia;
| | - Caroline Lee
- CSIRO Agriculture & Food, Locked Bag 1, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia; (C.L.); (I.C.)
| | - Ian Colditz
- CSIRO Agriculture & Food, Locked Bag 1, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia; (C.L.); (I.C.)
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8
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Chandrabalan A, Ramachandran R. Molecular mechanisms regulating Proteinase‐Activated Receptors (PARs). FEBS J 2021; 288:2697-2726. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.15829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arundhasa Chandrabalan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry University of Western Ontario London Canada
| | - Rithwik Ramachandran
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry University of Western Ontario London Canada
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9
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Wang M, Thyagarajan B. Pain pathways and potential new targets for pain relief. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2020; 69:110-123. [PMID: 33316085 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that affects a sizable percentage of people on a daily basis. Sensory neurons known as nociceptors built specifically to detect damaging stimuli can be found throughout the body. They transmit information about noxious stimuli from mechanical, thermal, and chemical sources to the central nervous system and higher brain centers via electrical signals. Nociceptors express various channels and receptors such as voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels, transient receptor potential channels, and opioid receptors that allow them to respond in a highly specific manner to noxious stimuli. Attenuating the pain response can be achieved by inhibiting or altering the expression of these pain targets. Achieving a deeper understanding of how these receptors can be affected at the molecular level can lead to the development of novel pain therapies. This review will discuss the mechanisms of pain, introduce the various receptors that are responsible for detecting pain, and future directions in pharmacological therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menglan Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
| | - Baskaran Thyagarajan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
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10
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Kim DH, Lee B, Lee J, Kim ME, Lee JS, Chung JH, Yu BP, Dong HH, Chung HY. FoxO6-mediated IL-1β induces hepatic insulin resistance and age-related inflammation via the TF/PAR2 pathway in aging and diabetic mice. Redox Biol 2019; 24:101184. [PMID: 30974318 PMCID: PMC6454229 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2019.101184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
FoxO has been proposed to play a role in the promotion of insulin resistance, and inflammation. FoxO is a pro-inflammatory transcription factor that is a key mediator of generation of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β in the liver. However, the detailed association of FoxO6 with insulin resistance and age-related inflammation has not been fully documented. Here, we showed that FoxO6 was elevated in the livers of aging rats and obese mice that exhibited insulin resistance. In addition, virus-mediated FoxO6 activation led to insulin resistance in mice with a notable increase in PAR2 and inflammatory signaling in the liver. On the other hand, FoxO6-KO mice showed reduced PAR2 signaling with a decrease in inflammatory cytokine expression and elevated insulin signaling. Because FoxO6 is closely associated with abnormal production of IL-1β in the liver, we focused on the FoxO6/IL-1β/PAR2 axis to further examine mechanisms underlying FoxO6-mediated insulin resistance and inflammation in the liver. In vitro experiments showed that FoxO6 directly binds to and elevates IL-1β expression. In turn, IL-1β treatment elevated the protein levels of PAR2 with a significant decrease in hepatic insulin signaling, whereas PAR2-siRNA treatment abolished these effects. However, PAR2-siRNA treatment had no effect on IL-1β expression induced by FoxO6, indicating that IL-1β may not be downstream of PAR2. Taken together, we assume that FoxO6-mediated IL-1β is involved in hepatic inflammation and insulin resistance via TF/PAR2 pathway in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae Hyun Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, 2, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gi, Geumjeong-Gu, Busan, 46241, South Korea
| | - Bonggi Lee
- Korean Medicine (KM)-Application Center, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine (KIOM), Daegu, 41062, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaewon Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, 2, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gi, Geumjeong-Gu, Busan, 46241, South Korea
| | - Mi Eun Kim
- Department of Biology, College of Natural Science, Chosun University, Gwangju, 501-759, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Sik Lee
- Department of Biology, College of Natural Science, Chosun University, Gwangju, 501-759, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Heun Chung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, 50612, South Korea
| | - Byung Pal Yu
- Department of Physiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - H Henry Dong
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15224, USA
| | - Hae Young Chung
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, 2, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gi, Geumjeong-Gu, Busan, 46241, South Korea.
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11
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Heuberger DM, Schuepbach RA. Protease-activated receptors (PARs): mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic modulators in PAR-driven inflammatory diseases. Thromb J 2019; 17:4. [PMID: 30976204 PMCID: PMC6440139 DOI: 10.1186/s12959-019-0194-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory diseases have become increasingly prevalent with industrialization. To address this, numerous anti-inflammatory agents and molecular targets have been considered in clinical trials. Among molecular targets, protease-activated receptors (PARs) are abundantly recognized for their roles in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. In particular, several inflammatory effects are directly mediated by the sensing of proteolytic activity by PARs. PARs belong to the seven transmembrane domain G protein-coupled receptor family, but are unique in their lack of physiologically soluble ligands. In contrast with classical receptors, PARs are activated by N-terminal proteolytic cleavage. Upon removal of specific N-terminal peptides, the resulting N-termini serve as tethered activation ligands that interact with the extracellular loop 2 domain and initiate receptor signaling. In the classical pathway, activated receptors mediate signaling by recruiting G proteins. However, activation of PARs alternatively lead to the transactivation of and signaling through receptors such as co-localized PARs, ion channels, and toll-like receptors. In this review we consider PARs and their modulators as potential therapeutic agents, and summarize the current understanding of PAR functions from clinical and in vitro studies of PAR-related inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea M Heuberger
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Surgical Research Division, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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12
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Suen J, Adams M, Lim J, Madala P, Xu W, Cotterell A, He Y, Yau M, Hooper J, Fairlie D. Mapping transmembrane residues of proteinase activated receptor 2 (PAR 2 ) that influence ligand-modulated calcium signaling. Pharmacol Res 2017; 117:328-342. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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13
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Yau MK, Liu L, Suen JY, Lim J, Lohman RJ, Jiang Y, Cotterell AJ, Barry GD, Mak JYW, Vesey DA, Reid RC, Fairlie DP. PAR2 Modulators Derived from GB88. ACS Med Chem Lett 2016; 7:1179-1184. [PMID: 27994760 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.6b00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
PAR2 antagonists have potential for treating inflammatory, respiratory, gastrointestinal, neurological, and metabolic disorders, but few antagonists are known. Derivatives of GB88 (3) suggest that all four of its components bind at distinct PAR2 sites with the isoxazole, cyclohexylalanine, and isoleucine determining affinity and selectivity, while the C-terminal substituent determines agonist/antagonist function. Here we report structurally similar PAR2 ligands with opposing functions (agonist vs antagonist) upon binding to PAR2. A biased ligand AY117 (65) was found to antagonize calcium release induced by PAR2 agonists trypsin and hexapeptide 2f-LIGRLO-NH2 (IC50 2.2 and 0.7 μM, HT29 cells), but it was a selective PAR2 agonist in inhibiting cAMP stimulation and activating ERK1/2 phosphorylation. It showed anti-inflammatory properties both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Kwan Yau
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Ligong Liu
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Jacky Y. Suen
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Junxian Lim
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Rink-Jan Lohman
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Yuhong Jiang
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Adam J. Cotterell
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Grant D. Barry
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Y. W. Mak
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - David A. Vesey
- Centre
for Kidney Research, Department of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Robert C. Reid
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - David P. Fairlie
- Division
of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Inflammation and Disease
Research and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging,
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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14
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Cho NC, Seo SH, Kim D, Shin JS, Ju J, Seong J, Seo SH, Lee I, Lee KT, Kim YK, No KT, Pae AN. Pharmacophore-based virtual screening, biological evaluation and binding mode analysis of a novel protease-activated receptor 2 antagonist. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2016; 30:625-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s10822-016-9937-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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15
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Stahn S, Thelen L, Albrecht IM, Bitzer J, Henkel T, Teusch NE. Teleocidin A2 inhibits human proteinase-activated receptor 2 signaling in tumor cells. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2016; 4:e00230. [PMID: 28116092 PMCID: PMC5242168 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Enhanced expression of the proteinase‐activated receptor 2 (PAR2) is linked to cell proliferation and migration in many cancer cell types. The role of PAR2 in cancer progression strongly illustrates the need for PAR2‐inhibiting compounds. However, to date, potent and selective PAR2 antagonists have not been reported. The natural product teleocidin A2 was characterized against PAR2‐activating peptide SLIGKV‐NH2, and trypsin‐induced PAR2‐dependent intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in tumor and in primary endothelial or epithelial cells. Further biochemical and cell‐based studies were conducted to evaluate teleocidin specificity. The antagonizing effect of teleocidin A2 was confirmed in PAR2‐dependent cell migration and rearrangement of actin cytoskeleton of human breast adenocarcinoma cell line (MDA‐MB 231) breast cancer cells. Teleocidin A2 antagonizes PAR2‐dependent intracellular Ca2+ mobilization induced by either SLIGKV‐NH2 or trypsin with IC50 values from 15 to 25 nmol/L in MDA‐MB 231, lung carcinoma cell line, and human umbilical vein endothelial cell. Half maximal inhibition of either PAR1 or P2Y receptor‐dependent Ca2+ release is only achieved with 10‐ to 20‐fold higher concentrations of teleocidin A2. In low nanomolar concentrations, teleocidin A2 reverses both SLIGKV‐NH2 and trypsin‐mediated PAR2‐dependent migration of MDA‐MB 231 cells, and has no effect itself on cell migration and no effect on cell viability. Teleocidin A2 further controls PAR2‐induced actin cytoskeleton rearrangement of MDA‐MB 231 cells. Thus, for the first time, the small molecule natural product teleocidin A2 exhibiting PAR2 antagonism in the low nanomolar range with potent antimigratory activity is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Stahn
- Bio-Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Applied Natural Sciences Cologne University of Applied Sciences Chem Park Leverkusen Leverkusen Germany
| | - Lisa Thelen
- Bio-Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Applied Natural Sciences Cologne University of Applied Sciences Chem Park Leverkusen Leverkusen Germany
| | - Ina-Maria Albrecht
- Bio-Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Applied Natural Sciences Cologne University of Applied Sciences Chem Park Leverkusen Leverkusen Germany
| | | | | | - Nicole Elisabeth Teusch
- Bio-Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Applied Natural Sciences Cologne University of Applied Sciences Chem Park Leverkusen Leverkusen Germany
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16
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Yau MK, Lim J, Liu L, Fairlie DP. Protease activated receptor 2 (PAR2) modulators: a patent review (2010-2015). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2016; 26:471-83. [PMID: 26936077 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2016.1154540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Protease activated receptor 2 (PAR2) is a self-activated G protein-coupled receptor that has been implicated in several diseases, including inflammatory, gastrointestinal, respiratory, metabolic diseases, cancers and others, making it an important prospective drug target. No known endogenous ligands are available for PAR2, so having potent exogenous agonists and antagonists can be helpful for studying physiological functions of PAR2. AREAS COVERED This review covers agonist-, antagonist-, antibody- and pepducin-based modulators of PAR2 reported in patent applications between 2010-2015, along with their available structure-activity relationships, biological activities and potential uses for studying PAR2. EXPERT OPINION In the last six years, substantial efforts were made towards developing PAR2 modulators, but most lack potency or selectivity or have poor pharmacokinetic profiles. Many PAR2 modulators were assessed by measuring Gαq protein-mediated calcium release in cells. This may be insufficient to fully characterize ligand function, since different ligands signal through PAR2 via multiple signaling pathways. It may be feasible to develop biased ligands as drugs that can selectively modulate one or more specific signaling pathways linking PAR2 to a specific diseased state. Accordingly, potent, orally bioavailable, pathway- and receptor-selective PAR2 modulators may be an achievable goal to realizing effective drugs that can treat PAR2-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Kwan Yau
- a Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Junxian Lim
- a Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Ligong Liu
- a Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia
| | - David P Fairlie
- a Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia
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17
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Discovery of 2-aryloxy-4-amino-quinazoline derivatives as novel protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:7717-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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18
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Boitano S, Hoffman J, Flynn AN, Asiedu MN, Tillu DV, Zhang Z, Sherwood CL, Rivas CM, DeFea KA, Vagner J, Price TJ. The novel PAR2 ligand C391 blocks multiple PAR2 signalling pathways in vitro and in vivo. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 172:4535-4545. [PMID: 26140338 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) is a GPCR linked to diverse pathologies, including acute and chronic pain. PAR2 is one of the four PARs that are activated by proteolytic cleavage of the extracellular amino terminus, resulting in an exposed, tethered peptide agonist. Several peptide and peptidomimetic agonists, with high potency and efficacy, have been developed to probe the functions of PAR2, in vitro and in vivo. However, few similarly potent and effective antagonists have been described. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We modified the peptidomimetic PAR2 agonist, 2-furoyl-LIGRLO-NH2 , to create a novel PAR2 peptidomimetic ligand, C391. C391 was evaluated for PAR2 agonist/antagonist activity to PAR2 across Gq signalling pathways using the naturally expressing PAR2 cell line 16HBE14o-. For antagonist studies, a highly potent and specific peptidomimetic agonist (2-aminothiazo-4-yl-LIGRL-NH2 ) and proteinase agonist (trypsin) were used to activate PAR2. C391 was also evaluated in vivo for reduction of thermal hyperalgesia, mediated by mast cell degranulation, in mice. KEY RESULTS C391 is a potent and specific peptidomimetic antagonist, blocking multiple signalling pathways (Gq -dependent Ca2+ , MAPK) induced following peptidomimetic or proteinase activation of human PAR2. In a PAR2-dependent behavioural assay in mice, C391 dose-dependently (75 μg maximum effect) blocked the thermal hyperalgesia, mediated by mast cell degranulation. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS C391 is the first low MW antagonist to block both PAR2 Ca2+ and MAPK signalling pathways activated by peptidomimetics and/or proteinase activation. C391 represents a new molecular structure for PAR2 antagonism and can serve as a basis for further development for this important therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Boitano
- Arizona Respiratory Center and Department of Physiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Justin Hoffman
- Arizona Respiratory Center and Department of Physiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Andrea N Flynn
- Arizona Respiratory Center and Department of Physiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Marina N Asiedu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Dipti V Tillu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Zhenyu Zhang
- The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Cara L Sherwood
- Arizona Respiratory Center and Department of Physiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Candy M Rivas
- Arizona Respiratory Center and Department of Physiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Graduate Interdisciplinary Program in Physiological Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Kathryn A DeFea
- Biomedical Sciences Division, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Josef Vagner
- The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Theodore J Price
- The BIO5 Collaborative Research Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA
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19
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Villar J, Cabrera-Benítez NE, Valladares F, García-Hernández S, Ramos-Nuez Á, Martín-Barrasa JL, Muros M, Kacmarek RM, Slutsky AS. Tryptase is involved in the development of early ventilator-induced pulmonary fibrosis in sepsis-induced lung injury. CRITICAL CARE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CRITICAL CARE FORUM 2015; 19:138. [PMID: 25871971 PMCID: PMC4391146 DOI: 10.1186/s13054-015-0878-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Most patients with sepsis and acute lung injury require mechanical ventilation to improve oxygenation and facilitate organ repair. Mast cells are important in response to infection and resolution of tissue injury. Since tryptase secreted from mast cells has been associated with tissue fibrosis, we hypothesized that tryptase would be involved in the early development of ventilator-induced pulmonary fibrosis in a clinically relevant model of sepsis-induced lung injury. Methods Prospective, randomized, controlled animal study using Sprague-Dawley rats. Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and perforation. Animals were randomized to spontaneous breathing or two ventilatory strategies for 4 h: protective ventilation with tidal volume (VT) = 6 ml/kg plus 10 cmH2O positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) or injurious ventilation with VT = 20 ml/kg plus 2 cmH2O PEEP. Healthy, non-ventilated animals served as non-septic controls. We studied the following end points: histology, serum cytokine levels, hydroxyproline content, tryptase and proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) protein level in lung homogenates, and tryptase and PAR-2 immunohistochemical localization in the lungs. Results All septic animals developed acute lung injury. Animals ventilated with high VT had a significant increase of pulmonary fibrosis, hydroxyproline content, tryptase and PAR-2 protein levels compared to septic controls (P <0.0001). However, protective ventilation attenuated sepsis-induced lung injury and decreased lung tryptase and PAR-2 protein levels. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed the presence of tryptase and PAR-2 in the lungs. Conclusions Mechanical ventilation modified tryptase and PAR-2 in injured lungs. Increased levels of these proteins were associated with development of sepsis and ventilator-induced pulmonary fibrosis early in the course of sepsis-induced lung injury.
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20
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Kakarala KK, Jamil K. Protease activated receptor-2 (PAR2): possible target of phytochemicals. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2014; 33:2003-22. [PMID: 25386994 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2014.986197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The use of phytochemicals either singly or in combination with other anticancer drugs comes with an advantage of less toxicity and minimal side effects. Signaling pathways play central role in cell cycle, cell growth, metabolism, etc. Thus, the identification of phytochemicals with promising antagonistic effect on the receptor/s playing key role in single transduction may have better therapeutic application. With this background, phytochemicals were screened against protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). PAR2 belongs to the superfamily of GPCRs and is an important target for breast cancer. Using in silico methods, this study was able to identify the phytochemicals with promising binding affinity suggesting their therapeutic potential in the treatment of breast cancer. The findings from this study acquires importance as the information on the possible agonists and antagonists of PAR2 is limited due its unique mechanism of activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavita Kumari Kakarala
- a Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics (CBB), School of Life Sciences , Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Advanced Studies (JNIAS) , 6th Floor, Buddha Bhawan, M.G. Road, Secunderabad 500003 , Andhra Pradesh , India
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21
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Lim J, Iyer A, Liu L, Suen JY, Lohman RJ, Seow V, Yau MK, Brown L, Fairlie DP. Diet-induced obesity, adipose inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction correlating with PAR2 expression are attenuated by PAR2 antagonism. FASEB J 2013; 27:4757-67. [PMID: 23964081 DOI: 10.1096/fj.13-232702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Excessive uptake of fatty acids and glucose by adipose tissue triggers adipocyte dysfunction and infiltration of immune cells. Altered metabolic homeostasis in adipose tissue promotes insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. Inflammatory and metabolic processes are mediated by certain proteolytic enzymes that share a common cellular target, protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). This study showed that human and rat obesity correlated in vivo with increased expression of PAR2 in adipose tissue, primarily in stromal vascular cells (SVCs) including macrophages. PAR2 was expressed more than other PARs on human macrophages and was increased by dietary fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, and myristic). A novel PAR2 antagonist, GB88 (5-isoxazoyl-Cha-Ile-spiroindene-1,4-piperidine), given orally at 10 mg/kg/d (wk 8-16) reduced body weight by ∼10% in obese rats fed a high-carbohydrate high-fat (HCHF) diet for 16 wk, and strongly attenuated adiposity, adipose tissue inflammation, infiltrated macrophages and mast cells, insulin resistance, and cardiac fibrosis and remodeling; while reversing liver and pancreatic dysfunction and normalizing secretion of PAR2-directed glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in MIN6 β cells. In summary, PAR2 is a new biomarker for obesity, and its expression is stimulated by dietary fatty acids; PAR2 is a substantial contributor to inflammatory and metabolic dysfunction; and a PAR2 antagonist inhibits diet-induced obesity and inflammatory, metabolic, and cardiovascular dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxian Lim
- 2D.P.F., Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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22
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Yau MK, Liu L, Fairlie DP. Toward drugs for protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). J Med Chem 2013; 56:7477-97. [PMID: 23895492 DOI: 10.1021/jm400638v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
PAR2 has a distinctive functional phenotype among an unusual group of GPCRs called protease activated receptors, which self-activate after cleavage of their N-termini by mainly serine proteases. PAR2 is the most highly expressed PAR on certain immune cells, and it is activated by multiple proteases (but not thrombin) in inflammation. PAR2 is expressed on many types of primary human cells and cancer cells. PAR2 knockout mice and PAR2 agonists and antagonists have implicated PAR2 as a promising target in inflammatory conditions; respiratory, gastrointestinal, metabolic, cardiovascular, and neurological dysfunction; and cancers. This article summarizes salient features of PAR2 structure, activation, and function; opportunities for disease intervention via PAR2; pharmacological properties of published or patented PAR2 modulators (small molecule agonists and antagonists, pepducins, antibodies); and some personal perspectives on limitations of assessing their properties and on promising new directions for PAR2 modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Kwan Yau
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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23
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Moniaga CS, Jeong SK, Egawa G, Nakajima S, Hara-Chikuma M, Jeon JE, Lee SH, Hibino T, Miyachi Y, Kabashima K. Protease activity enhances production of thymic stromal lymphopoietin and basophil accumulation in flaky tail mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2013; 182:841-51. [PMID: 23333753 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Revised: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal barrier abnormality due to filaggrin deficiency is an important predisposing factor in the development of atopic dermatitis (AD). In addition, the expression of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) in keratinocytes (KCs), induced by barrier disruption, can promote type 2 helper T-cell polarization. Protease activity, including protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2), is also known to be involved in epidermal barrier function in AD. However, to our knowledge, the relationship between protease activity and filaggrin deficiency from the perspective of AD has not been elucidated. Flaky tail (Flg(ft)) mice, known to have a mutation in the filaggrin gene, were used to assess the role of protease in KCs in the steady state and the mite-induced AD-like skin inflammation model. In the steady state, the expression and activity levels of endogenous proteases, kallikreins 5, 7, and 14, in the skin and TSLP were higher in Flg(ft) than in control mice. In addition, activation of PAR-2 by its agonist induced the production of TSLP in KCs of Flg(ft) mice, which was abrogated by a newly developed PAR-2 antagonist. Application of the PAR-2 antagonist improved symptoms and basophil accumulation in Flg(ft) mice treated with mite extracts. These results suggest that possibly through the PAR-2 activation in KCs, filaggrin deficiency induces TSLP production and basophil accumulation, which play important roles in the establishment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharina S Moniaga
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
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24
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Flynn AN, Hoffman J, Tillu DV, Sherwood CL, Zhang Z, Patek R, Asiedu MNK, Vagner J, Price TJ, Boitano S. Development of highly potent protease-activated receptor 2 agonists via synthetic lipid tethering. FASEB J 2013; 27:1498-510. [PMID: 23292071 DOI: 10.1096/fj.12-217323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR₂) is a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) associated with a variety of pathologies. However, the therapeutic potential of PAR₂ is limited by a lack of potent and specific ligands. Following proteolytic cleavage, PAR₂ is activated through a tethered ligand. Hence, we reasoned that lipidation of peptidomimetic ligands could promote membrane targeting and thus significantly improve potency and constructed a series of synthetic tethered ligands (STLs). STLs contained a peptidomimetic PAR₂ agonist (2-aminothiazol-4-yl-LIGRL-NH₂) bound to a palmitoyl group (Pam) via polyethylene glycol (PEG) linkers. In a high-throughput physiological assay, these STL agonists displayed EC₅₀ values as low as 1.47 nM, representing a ∼200 fold improvement over the untethered parent ligand. Similarly, these STL agonists were potent activators of signaling pathways associated with PAR₂: EC₅₀ for Ca(2+) response as low as 3.95 nM; EC₅₀ for MAPK response as low as 9.49 nM. Moreover, STLs demonstrated significant improvement in potency in vivo, evoking mechanical allodynia with an EC₅₀ of 14.4 pmol. STLs failed to elicit responses in PAR2(-/-) cells at agonist concentrations of >300-fold their EC₅₀ values. Our results demonstrate that the STL approach is a powerful tool for increasing ligand potency at PAR₂ and represent opportunities for drug development at other protease activated receptors and across GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea N Flynn
- Department of Physiology, Arizona Health Sciences Center, Tucson, AZ 85724-5030, USA
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25
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Nichols HL, Saffeddine M, Theriot BS, Hegde A, Polley D, El-Mays T, Vliagoftis H, Hollenberg MD, Wilson EH, Walker JKL, DeFea KA. β-Arrestin-2 mediates the proinflammatory effects of proteinase-activated receptor-2 in the airway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:16660-5. [PMID: 23012429 PMCID: PMC3478622 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1208881109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteinase-Activated receptor-2 (PAR(2)), a G-protein-coupled Receptor, activated by serine proteinases, is reported to have both protective and proinflammatory effects in the airway. Given these opposing actions, both inhibitors and activators of PAR(2) have been proposed for treating asthma. PAR(2) can signal through two independent pathways: a β-arrestin-dependent one that promotes leukocyte migration, and a G-protein/Ca(2+) one that is required for prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) production and bronchiolar smooth muscle relaxation. We hypothesized that the proinflammatory responses to PAR(2) activation are mediated by β-arrestins, whereas the protective effects are not. Using a mouse ovalbumin model for PAR(2)-modulated airway inflammation, we observed decreased leukocyte recruitment, cytokine production, and mucin production in β-arrestin-2(-/-) mice. In contrast, PAR(2)-mediated PGE(2) production, smooth muscle relaxation, and decreased baseline airway resistance (measures of putative PAR(2) "protective" effects) were independent of β-arrestin-2. Flow cytometry and cytospins reveal that lung eosinophil and CD4 T-cell infiltration, and production of IL-4, IL-6, IL-13, and TNFα, were enhanced in wild-type but not β-arrestin-2(-/-) mice. Using the forced oscillation technique to measure airway resistance reveals that PAR(2) activation protects against airway hyperresponsiveness by an unknown mechanism, possibly involving smooth muscle relaxation. Our data suggest that the PAR(2)-enhanced inflammatory process is β-arrestin-2 dependent, whereas the protective anticonstrictor effect of bronchial epithelial PAR(2) may be β-arrestin independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heddie L. Nichols
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | | | - Barbara S. Theriot
- Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710; and
| | - Akhil Hegde
- Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710; and
| | | | - Tamer El-Mays
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4
| | | | | | - Emma H. Wilson
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Julia K. L. Walker
- Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710; and
| | - Kathryn A. DeFea
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
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26
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Hoffman J, Flynn AN, Tillu DV, Zhang Z, Patek R, Price TJ, Vagner J, Boitano S. Lanthanide labeling of a potent protease activated receptor-2 agonist for time-resolved fluorescence analysis. Bioconjug Chem 2012; 23:2098-104. [PMID: 22994402 DOI: 10.1021/bc300300q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Protease activated receptor-2 (PAR(2)) is one of four G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be activated by exogenous or endogenous proteases, which cleave the extracellular amino-terminus to expose a tethered ligand and subsequent G-protein signaling. Alternatively, PAR(2) can be activated by peptide or peptidomimetic ligands derived from the sequence of the natural tethered ligand. Screening of novel ligands that directly bind to PAR(2) to agonize or antagonize the receptor has been hindered by the lack of a sensitive, high-throughput, affinity binding assay. In this report, we describe the synthesis and use of a modified PAR(2) peptidomimetic agonist, 2-furoyl-LIGRLO-(diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid)-NH(2) (2-f-LIGRLO-dtpa), designed for lanthanide-based time-resolved fluorescence screening. We first demonstrate that 2-f-LIGRLO-dtpa is a potent and specific PAR(2) agonist across a full spectrum of in vitro assays. We then show that 2-f-LIGRLO-dtpa can be utilized in an affinity binding assay to evaluate the ligand-receptor interactions between known high potency peptidomimetic agonists (2-furoyl-LIGRLO-NH(2), 2-f-LIGRLO; 2-aminothiazol-4-yl-LIGRL-NH(2), 2-at-LIGRL; 6-aminonicotinyl-LIGRL-NH(2), 6-an-LIGRL) and PAR(2). A separate N-terminal peptidomimetic modification (3-indoleacetyl-LIGRL-NH(2), 3-ia-LIGRL) that does not activate PAR(2) signaling was used as a negative control. All three peptidomimetic agonists demonstrated sigmoidal competitive binding curves, with the more potent agonists (2-f-LIGRLO and 2-at-LIGRL) displaying increased competition. In contrast, the control peptide (3-ia-LIGRL) displayed limited competition for PAR(2) binding. In summary, we have developed a europium-containing PAR(2) agonist that can be used in a highly sensitive affinity binding assay to screen novel PAR(2) ligands in a high-throughput format. This ligand can serve as a critical tool in the screening and development of PAR(2) ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Hoffman
- Department of Physiology, Arizona Health Sciences Center, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85724-5030, USA
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27
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Suen JY, Barry GD, Lohman RJ, Halili MA, Cotterell AJ, Le GT, Fairlie DP. Modulating human proteinase activated receptor 2 with a novel antagonist (GB88) and agonist (GB110). Br J Pharmacol 2012; 165:1413-23. [PMID: 21806599 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01610.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Many cells express proteinase activated receptor 2 (PAR2) on their plasma membrane. PAR2 is activated by proteolytic enzymes, such as trypsin and tryptase that cleave the receptor N-terminus, inititating signalling to intracellular G proteins. Studies on PAR2 have relied heavily upon activating effects of proteases and peptide agonists that lack stability and bioavailability in vivo. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH A novel small molecule agonist GB110 and an antagonist GB88 were characterized in vitro against trypsin, peptide agonists, PAR2 antibody, PAR1 agonists and flow cytometry,in seven cell lines using intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization and examined in vivo against PAR2- and PAR1-induced rat paw oedema. KEY RESULTS GB110 is a potent non-peptidic agonist activating PAR2-mediated Ca(2+) release in HT29 cells (EC(50) ∼200 nM) and six other human cell lines, inducing PAR2 internalization. GB88 is a unique PAR2 antagonist, inhibiting PAR2 activated Ca(2+) release (IC(50) ∼2 µM) induced by native (trypsin) or synthetic peptide and non-peptide agonists. GB88 was a competitive and surmountable antagonist of agonist 2f-LIGRLO-NH(2), a competitive but insurmountable antagonist of agonist GB110, and a non-competitive insurmountable antagonist of trypsin. GB88 was orally active and anti-inflammatory in vivo, inhibiting acute rat paw oedema elicited by agonist GB110 and proteolytic or peptide agonists of PAR2 but not by corresponding agonists of PAR1 or PAR4. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The novel PAR2 agonist and antagonist modulate intracellular Ca(2+) and rat paw oedema, providing novel molecular tools for examining PAR2-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Y Suen
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Caliendo G, Santagada V, Perissutti E, Severino B, Fiorino F, Frecentese F, Juliano L. Kallikrein protease activated receptor (PAR) axis: an attractive target for drug development. J Med Chem 2012; 55:6669-86. [PMID: 22607152 DOI: 10.1021/jm300407t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caliendo
- Dipartimento di Chimica Farmaceutica e Tossicologica, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano, 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy.
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Kwapiszewska G, Markart P, Dahal BK, Kojonazarov B, Marsh LM, Schermuly RT, Taube C, Meinhardt A, Ghofrani HA, Steinhoff M, Seeger W, Preissner KT, Olschewski A, Weissmann N, Wygrecka M. PAR-2 Inhibition Reverses Experimental Pulmonary Hypertension. Circ Res 2012; 110:1179-91. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.111.257568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rationale:
A hallmark of the vascular remodeling process underlying pulmonary hypertension (PH) is the aberrant proliferation and migration of pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMC). Accumulating evidence suggests that mast cell mediators play a role in the pathogenesis of PH.
Objective:
In the present study we investigated the importance of protease-activated receptor (PAR)–2 and its ligand mast cell tryptase in the development of PH.
Methods and Results:
Our results revealed strong increase in PAR-2 and tryptase expression in the lungs of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) patients, hypoxia-exposed mice, and monocrotaline (MCT)–treated rats. Elevated tryptase levels were also detected in plasma samples from IPAH patients. Hypoxia and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)–BB upregulated PAR-2 expression in PASMC. This effect was reversed by HIF (hypoxia inducible factor)–1α depletion, PDGF-BB neutralizing antibody, or the PDGF-BB receptor antagonist Imatinib. Attenuation of PAR-2 expression was also observed in smooth muscle cells of pulmonary vessels of mice exposed to hypoxia and rats challenged with MCT in response to Imatinib treatment. Tryptase induced PASMC proliferation and migration as well as enhanced synthesis of fibronectin and matrix metalloproteinase-2 in a PAR-2- and ERK1/2-dependent manner, suggesting that PAR-2-dependent signaling contributes to vascular remodeling by various mechanisms. Furthermore, PAR-2
−/−
mice were protected against hypoxia-induced PH, and PAR-2 antagonist application reversed established PH in the hypoxia mouse model.
Conclusions:
Our study identified a novel role of PAR-2 in vascular remodeling in the lung. Interference with this pathway may offer novel therapeutic options for the treatment of PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Kwapiszewska
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Philipp Markart
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Bhola Kumar Dahal
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Baktybek Kojonazarov
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Leigh Matthew Marsh
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Ralph Theo Schermuly
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Christian Taube
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Andreas Meinhardt
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Hossein Ardeschir Ghofrani
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Martin Steinhoff
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Werner Seeger
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Klaus Theo Preissner
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Andrea Olschewski
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
| | - Malgorzata Wygrecka
- From the Departments of Internal Medicine (G.K., P.M., B.K.D., B.K., R.T.S., H.A.G., W.S., N.W.), Anatomy (A.M.), and Biochemistry (K.T.P., M.W.), University of Giessen Lung Centre, Giessen, Germany; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria (G.K., L.M.M., A.O.); Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands (C.T.); Department of Dermatology and Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA (M.S.)
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Lohman RJ, Cotterell AJ, Barry GD, Liu L, Suen JY, Vesey DA, Fairlie DP. An antagonist of human protease activated receptor-2 attenuates PAR2 signaling, macrophage activation, mast cell degranulation, and collagen-induced arthritis in rats. FASEB J 2012; 26:2877-87. [PMID: 22467762 DOI: 10.1096/fj.11-201004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Multiple serine proteases exert proinflammatory actions by signaling through protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) on the cell surface. Although inhibitors of individual proteases are anti-inflammatory, we sought to discover whether the first potent antagonist of their common target PAR2 might be beneficial in treating chronic arthritis-like inflammatory disease. Using a fluorescence assay, a novel compound, GB88, was shown to antagonize PAR2-induced intracellular Ca(2+) release in human monocyte-derived macrophages, being 1000 times more potent than a control compound, ENMD-1068 (IC(50) 1.6 ± 0.5 μM vs. 1.2 ± 0.4 mM, respectively). In Wistar rats, GB88 was orally bioavailable (F=55%, T(max) 4 h, C(max) 1.7 μM, 10 mg/kg). GB88 inhibited the acute paw edema induced in Wistar rats by intraplantar λ-carrageenan or PAR2 agonists 2-furoyl-LIGRLO-NH(2) or mast cell β-tryptase, without inhibiting proteolytic activity of tryptase in vitro. In the chronic collagen-induced model of arthritis in rats, GB88 (10 mg/kg) was disease modifying and ameliorated pathological and histopathological changes (edema, pannus formation, synovial hyperplasia, collagen degradation, macrophage invasion, mast cell degranulation) compared to untreated arthritic controls. The results suggest that an orally active PAR2 antagonist is effective in treating chronic arthritis in rats through inhibiting macrophage infiltration, mast cell degranulation, and β-tryptase-PAR2 signaling in joint inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rink-Jan Lohman
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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31
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Knight V, Tchongue J, Lourensz D, Tipping P, Sievert W. Protease-activated receptor 2 promotes experimental liver fibrosis in mice and activates human hepatic stellate cells. Hepatology 2012; 55:879-87. [PMID: 22095855 DOI: 10.1002/hep.24784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Protease-activated receptor (PAR) 2 is a G-protein-coupled receptor that is activated after proteolytic cleavage by serine proteases, including mast cell tryptase and activated coagulation factors. PAR-2 activation augments inflammatory and profibrotic pathways through the induction of genes encoding proinflammatory cytokines and extracellular matrix proteins. Thus, PAR-2 represents an important interface linking coagulation and inflammation. PAR-2 is widely expressed in cells of the gastrointestinal tract, including hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), endothelial cells, and hepatic macrophages; however, its role in liver fibrosis has not been previously examined. We studied the development of CCl(4) -induced liver fibrosis in PAR-2 knockout mice, and showed that PAR-2 deficiency reduced the progression of liver fibrosis, hepatic collagen gene expression, and hydroxyproline content. Reduced fibrosis was associated with decreased transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) gene and protein expression and decreased matrix metalloproteinase 2 and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 1 gene expression. In addition, PAR-2 stimulated activation, proliferation, collagen production, and TGFβ protein production by human stellate cells, indicating that hepatic PAR-2 activation increases profibrogenic cytokines and collagen production both in vivo and in vitro. CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrate the capacity of PAR-2 activation to augment TGFβ production and promote hepatic fibrosis in mice and to induce a profibrogenic phenotype in human HSCs. PAR-2 antagonists have recently been developed and may represent a novel therapeutic approach in preventing fibrosis in patients with chronic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Knight
- Center for Inflammatory Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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32
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Targeting proteinase-activated receptors: therapeutic potential and challenges. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2012; 11:69-86. [PMID: 22212680 DOI: 10.1038/nrd3615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Proteinase-activated receptors (PARs), a family of four seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors, act as targets for signalling by various proteolytic enzymes. PARs are characterized by a unique activation mechanism involving the proteolytic unmasking of a tethered ligand that stimulates the receptor. Given the emerging roles of these receptors in cancer as well as in disorders of the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, respiratory and central nervous system, PARs have become attractive targets for the development of novel therapeutics. In this Review we summarize the mechanisms by which PARs modulate cell function and the roles they can have in physiology and diseases. Furthermore, we provide an overview of possible strategies for developing PAR antagonists.
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Rothmeier AS, Ruf W. Protease-activated receptor 2 signaling in inflammation. Semin Immunopathol 2011; 34:133-49. [PMID: 21971685 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-011-0289-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are G protein-coupled receptors that are activated by proteolytical cleavage of the amino-terminus and thereby act as sensors for extracellular proteases. While coagulation proteases activate PARs to regulate hemostasis, thrombosis, and cardiovascular function, PAR2 is also activated in extravascular locations by a broad array of serine proteases, including trypsin, tissue kallikreins, coagulation factors VIIa and Xa, mast cell tryptase, and transmembrane serine proteases. Administration of PAR2-specific agonistic and antagonistic peptides, as well as studies in PAR2 knockout mice, identified critical functions of PAR2 in development, inflammation, immunity, and angiogenesis. Here, we review these roles of PAR2 with an emphasis on the role of coagulation and other extracellular protease pathways that cleave PAR2 in epithelial, immune, and neuronal cells to regulate physiological and pathophysiological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea S Rothmeier
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Interdicting protease-activated receptor-2-driven inflammation with cell-penetrating pepducins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:8491-6. [PMID: 21536878 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1017091108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2), a cell surface receptor for trypsin-like proteases, plays a key role in a number of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases of the joints, lungs, brain, gastrointestinal tract, and vascular systems. Despite considerable effort by the pharmaceutical industry, PAR2 has proven recalcitrant to targeting by small molecule inhibitors, which have been unable to effectively prevent the interaction of the protease-generated tethered ligand with the body of the receptor. Here, we report the development of first-in-class cell-penetrating lipopeptide "pepducin" antagonists of PAR2. The design of the third intracellular (i3) loop pepducins were based on a structural model of a PAR2 dimer and by mutating key pharmacophores in the receptor intracellular loops and analogous pepducins. Individual pharmacophores were identified, which controlled constitutive, agonist, and antagonist activities. This approach culminated in the identification of the P2pal-18S pepducin which completely suppressed trypsin and mast cell tryptase signaling through PAR2 in neutrophils and colon cancer cells. The PAR2 pepducin was highly efficacious in blocking PAR2-dependent inflammatory responses in mouse models. These effects were lost in PAR2-deficient and mast-cell-deficient mice, thereby validating the specificity of the pepducin in vivo. These data provide proof of concept that PAR2 pepducin antagonists may afford effective treatments of potentially debilitating inflammatory diseases and serve as a blueprint for developing highly potent and specific i3-loop-based pepducins for other G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).
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Adams MN, Ramachandran R, Yau MK, Suen JY, Fairlie DP, Hollenberg MD, Hooper JD. Structure, function and pathophysiology of protease activated receptors. Pharmacol Ther 2011; 130:248-82. [PMID: 21277892 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Discovered in the 1990s, protease activated receptors(1) (PARs) are membrane-spanning cell surface proteins that belong to the G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. A defining feature of these receptors is their irreversible activation by proteases; mainly serine. Proteolytic agonists remove the PAR extracellular amino terminal pro-domain to expose a new amino terminus, or tethered ligand, that binds intramolecularly to induce intracellular signal transduction via a number of molecular pathways that regulate a variety of cellular responses. By these mechanisms PARs function as cell surface sensors of extracellular and cell surface associated proteases, contributing extensively to regulation of homeostasis, as well as to dysfunctional responses required for progression of a number of diseases. This review examines common and distinguishing structural features of PARs, mechanisms of receptor activation, trafficking and signal termination, and discusses the physiological and pathological roles of these receptors and emerging approaches for modulating PAR-mediated signaling in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark N Adams
- Mater Medical Research Institute, Aubigny Place, Raymond Terrace, South Brisbane Qld 4101, Australia
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Abstract
Proteases in the skin are essential to epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis. In addition to their direct proteolytic effects, certain proteases signal to cells by activating protease-activated receptors (PARs), the G-protein-coupled receptors. The expression of functional PAR-2 on human skin and its role in inflammation, pruritus, and skin barrier homeostasis have been demonstrated. Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a multifactorial inflammatory skin disease characterized by genetic barrier defects and allergic inflammation, which is sustained by gene-environmental interactions. Recent studies have revealed aberrant expression and activation of serine proteases and PAR-2 in the lesional skin of AD patients. The imbalance between proteases and protease inhibitors associated with genetic defects in the protease/protease inhibitor encoding genes, increase in skin surface pH, and exposure to proteolytically active allergens contribute to this aberrant protease/ PAR-2 signaling in AD. The increased protease activity in AD leads to abnormal desquamation, degradation of lipid-processing enzymes and antimicrobial peptides, and activation of primary cytokines, thereby leading to permeability barrier dysfunction, inflammation, and defects in the antimicrobial barrier. Moreover, up-regulated proteases stimulate PAR-2 in lesional skin of AD and lead to the production of cytokines and chemokines involved in inflammation and immune responses, itching sensation, and sustained epidermal barrier perturbation with easier allergen penetration. In addition, PAR-2 is an important sensor for exogenous danger molecules, such as exogenous proteases from various allergens, and plays an important role in AD pathogenesis. Together, these findings suggest that protease activity or PAR-2 may be a future target for therapeutic intervention for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Eun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Human Barrier Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Se Kyoo Jeong
- Research Division, NeoPharm Co., Ltd., Daejeon, Korea
| | - Seung Hun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Human Barrier Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Barry GD, Suen JY, Le GT, Cotterell A, Reid RC, Fairlie DP. Novel Agonists and Antagonists for Human Protease Activated Receptor 2. J Med Chem 2010; 53:7428-40. [DOI: 10.1021/jm100984y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Grant D. Barry
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Jacky Y. Suen
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Giang T. Le
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Adam Cotterell
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Robert C. Reid
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072, Australia
| | - David P. Fairlie
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072, Australia
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Abstract
This themed section of BJP includes 11 reviews on the biology of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and the drug targets that these present, 21 research papers on the pharmacology of a range of GPCRs and Commentaries on four of the papers. Areas reviewed include molecular interactions, particular in respect of hetero-dimerisation between receptors and other membrane-located proteins and other key signalling molecules including cAMP and G12/13 proteins and recently de-orphanised receptors including the Neuromedins U & S and the Free Fatty Acid receptors FFA2 & FFA3. The research papers cover the pharmacology of a range of agents acting at GPCRs, including adrenoceptors, purinoceptors, 5HT, opioid, cannabinoid & PAR-2 receptors. A group of papers is concerned with the interesting and rapidly developing pharmacology of drugs acting at beta(2)-adrenoceptors. The reach of GPCRs is illustrated by the range of physiological systems and therapeutic applications involved, including pain, cancer, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, visual and respiratory and central nervous systems.
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Goh FG, Ng PY, Nilsson M, Kanke T, Plevin R. Dual effect of the novel peptide antagonist K-14585 on proteinase-activated receptor-2-mediated signalling. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 158:1695-704. [PMID: 19917067 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00415.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Here we have examined the effects of the novel peptide antagonist N-[1-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)methyl]-3-(1-pyrrolidinylmethyl)-1H-indol-5-yl]aminocarbonyl]-glycinyl-L-lysinyl-L-phenylalanyl-N-benzhydrylamide (K-14585) on proteinase-activated receptor (PAR)(2)-mediated intracellular signalling events. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Using NCTC2544 cells expressing PAR(2), we assessed the effects of K-14585 on PAR(2)-mediated [(3)H] inositol phosphate accumulation, MAP kinase activation, p65 NFkappaB phosphorylation and DNA binding and IL-8 production. KEY RESULTS Pretreatment with K-14585 (5 microM) inhibited [(3)H] inositol phosphate levels stimulated by PAR(2)-activating peptide Ser-Leu-Ile-Gly-Lys-Val (SLIGKV-OH) in PAR(2)-expressing NCTC2544 cells. K-14585 pretreatment did not influence PAR(2)-mediated extracellular regulated kinase activation but inhibited p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation. At a higher concentration (30 microM), K-14585 alone stimulated p38 MAP kinase activation. These effects were replicated in EAhy926 cells, endogenously expressing PAR(2), but not in parental or PAR(4)-expressing NCTC2544 cells, suggesting these effects were PAR(2)-dependent. SLIGKV-mediated stimulation of p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation was substantially reduced by the G(q/11) inhibitor YM-254890, without affecting K-14585-mediated phosphorylation. Pretreatment with K-14585 inhibited PAR(2)-mediated p65 NFkappaB phosphorylation and NFkappaB-DNA binding. K-14585 (30 microM) alone stimulated comparable NFkappaB reporter activity to SLIGKV-OH. K-14585 inhibited SLIGKV-stimulated IL-8 production, but given alone increased IL-8. While SLIGKV-induced IL-8 formation was reduced by both SB203580 and YM-254890, the response to K-14585 was sensitive to SB203580 but not YM-254890. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These data reveal that K-14585 has a duality of action functioning both as an antagonist and agonist due to either partial agonist actions or possible agonist-directed signalling. The data also suggest two modes of p38 MAP kinase activation emanating from PAR(2), one G(q/11)-dependent and the other G(q/11)-independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fui Goon Goh
- Division of Physiology & Pharmacology, Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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McIntosh K, Cunningham MR, Cadalbert L, Lockhart J, Boyd G, Ferrell W, Plevin R. Proteinase-activated receptor-2 mediated inhibition of TNFalpha-stimulated JNK activation - A novel paradigm for G(q/11) linked GPCRs. Cell Signal 2010; 22:265-73. [PMID: 19781631 PMCID: PMC2806525 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2009.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In this study we examined the potential for PAR(2) and TNFalpha to synergise at the level of MAP kinase signalling in PAR(2) expressing NCTC2544 cells. However, to our surprise we found that activation of PAR(2) by trypsin or the specific activating peptide SLIGKV-OH strongly inhibited both the phosphorylation and activity of JNK. In contrast neither p38 MAP kinase nor ERK activation was affected although TNFalpha stimulated IkappaBalpha loss was partially reversed. The inhibitory effect was not observed in parental cells nor in cells expressing PAR(4), however inhibition was reversed by pre-incubation with the novel PAR(2) antagonist K14585, suggesting that the effect is specific for PAR(2) activation. SLIGKV-OH was found to be more potent in inhibiting TNFalpha-induced JNK activation than in stimulating JNK alone, suggesting agonist-directed signalling. The PKC activator PMA, also mimicked the inhibitory effect of SLIGKV-OH, and the effects of both agents were reversed by pre-treatment with the PKC inhibitor, GF109203X. Furthermore, incubation with the novel G(q/11) inhibitor YM25480 also reversed PAR(2) mediated inhibition. Activation of PAR(2) was found to disrupt TNFR1 binding to RIP and TRADD and this was reversed by both GF109203X and YM25480. A similar mode of inhibition observed in HUVECs through PAR(2) or P2Y2 receptors demonstrates the potential of a novel paradigm for GPCRs linked to G(q/11), in mediating inhibition of TNFalpha-stimulated JNK activation. This has important implications in assessing the role of GPCRs in inflammation and other conditions.
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Key Words
- par-2, proteinase-activated receptor-2
- par-2 ap, par-2 activating peptide
- 2f-ligkv-oh, 2-furoyl-ligkv-hydroxyl
- jnk, c-jun n-terminal protein kinase
- nfκb, nuclear factor kappa b
- pkc, protein kinase c
- map kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- pma, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate
- tnfα, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, tnfr1, tnf-receptor-1
- gpcr, g-protein-coupled receptors
- rip, receptor interacting protein
- tradd, tnf receptor activated death domain
- traf, tnf receptor activating factor
- nhek, normal human epithelial keratinocytes
- gf109203x, 3-[1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-1h-indol-3-yl]-4-(1h-indol-3-yl)-1h-pyrrole-2,5-dione monohydrochloride
- fadd, fas-associated death domain
- madd, map kinase activating death domain protein
- il-6, interleukin-6
- proteinase-activated receptor 2
- c-jun n-terminal protein kinase
- tnfα
- protein kinase c
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn McIntosh
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Strathclyde, Strathclyde Institute for Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, 27 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G4 0NR, Scotland, UK
- School of Engineering and Science, University of The West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK
| | - Margaret R. Cunningham
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Strathclyde, Strathclyde Institute for Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, 27 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G4 0NR, Scotland, UK
| | - Laurence Cadalbert
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Strathclyde, Strathclyde Institute for Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, 27 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G4 0NR, Scotland, UK
| | - John Lockhart
- School of Engineering and Science, University of The West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK
| | - Gary Boyd
- School of Engineering and Science, University of The West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK
| | - W.R. Ferrell
- Centre for Rheumatic Disease, Royal Infirmary, Glasgow G31 2ER, UK
| | - Robin Plevin
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Strathclyde, Strathclyde Institute for Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, 27 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G4 0NR, Scotland, UK
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