Biochemical characterization of a novel high-affinity and specific plasma kallikrein inhibitor

Increased Prolylcarboxypeptidase Expression Can Serve as a Biomarker of Senescence in Culture

Prolylcarboxypeptidase (PRCP, PCP, Lysosomal Pro-X-carboxypeptidase, Angiotensinase C) controls angiotensin- and kinin-induced cell signaling. Elevation of PRCP appears to be activated in chronic inflammatory diseases [cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes] in proportion to severity. Vascular endothelial cell senescence and mitochondrial dysfunction have consistently been shown in models of CVD in aging. Cellular senescence, a driver of age-related dysfunction, can differentially alter the expression of lysosomal enzymes due to lysosomal membrane permeability. There is a lack of data demonstrating the effect of age-related dysfunction on the expression and function of PRCP. To explore the changes in PRCP, the PRCP-dependent prekallikrein (PK) pathway was characterized in early- and late-passage human pulmonary artery endothelial cells (HPAECs). Detailed kinetic analysis of cells treated with high molecular weight kininogen (HK), a precursor of bradykinin (BK), and PK revealed a mechanism by which senescent HPAECs activate the generation of kallikrein upon the assembly of the HK-PK complex on HPAECs in parallel with an upregulation of PRCP and endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS) and NO formation. The NO production and expression of both PRCP and eNOS increased in early-passage HPAECs and decreased in late-passage HPAECs. Low activity of PRCP in late-passage HPAECs was associated with rapid decreased telomerase reverse transcriptase mRNA levels. We also found that, with an increase in the passage number of HPAECs, reduced PRCP altered the respiration rate. These results indicated that aging dysregulates PRCP protein expression, and further studies will shed light into the complexity of the PRCP-dependent signaling pathway in aging.

Identification of the minimum region of Bordetella pertussis Vag8 required for interaction with C1 inhibitor

An autotransporter of Bordetella pertussis, virulence‐associated gene 8 (Vag8), binds and inactivates the complement regulator, C1 inhibitor (C1‐Inh), and plays a role in evasion of the complement system. However, the molecular interaction between Vag8 and C1‐Inh remains unclear. Here, we localized the minimum region of Vag8 required for interaction with C1‐Inh by examining the differently truncated Vag8 derivatives for the ability to bind and inactivate C1‐Inh. The truncated Vag8 containing amino‐acid residues 102–548, but not 102–479 and 202–648, showed the full activity of intact Vag8, suggesting that the separate 102–202 and 548–648 amino‐acid regions of Vag8 mediate the interaction with C1‐Inh.

Discovery and development of plasma kallikrein inhibitors for multiple diseases

Plasma kallikrein (PKal) belongs to the family of trypsin-like serine proteases. The expression of PKal is associated with multiple physiological systems or pathways such as coagulation pathway, platelet aggregation process, kallikrein-kinin system, renin-angiotensin system and complement pathway. On the basis of PKal's multiple physiological functions, it has been considered as a potential target for several diseases including hereditary angioedema, microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus and cerebrovascular disease. Up to now, many PKal inhibitors have been identified and a few of them have reached clinical trials or market. This review summarizes the development of small molecule and peptide PKal inhibitors having different scaffolds and discusses their structure-activity relationship and selectivity. We hope this review facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the types of PKal inhibitors developed to tackle different manifestations of PKal-associated diseases.

Fibrinolysis Inhibitors: Potential Drugs for the Treatment and Prevention of Bleeding

Hyperfibrinolytic situations can lead to life-threatening bleeding, especially during cardiac surgery. The approved antifibrinolytic agents such as tranexamic acid, ε-aminocaproic acid, 4-aminomethylbenzoic acid, and aprotinin were developed in the 1960s without the structural insight of their respective targets. Crystal structures of the main antifibrinolytic targets, the lysine binding sites on plasminogen's kringle domains, and plasmin's serine protease domain greatly contributed to the structure-based drug design of novel inhibitor classes. Two series of ligands targeting the lysine binding sites have been recently described, which are more potent than the most-widely used antifibrinolytic agent, tranexamic acid. Furthermore, four types of promising active site inhibitors of plasmin have been developed: tranexamic acid conjugates targeting the S1 pocket and primed sites, substrate-analogue linear homopiperidylalanine-containing 4-amidinobenzylamide derivatives, macrocyclic inhibitors addressing nonprimed binding regions, and bicyclic 14-mer SFTI-1 analogues blocking both, primed and nonprimed binding sites of plasmin. Furthermore, several allosteric plasmin inhibitors based on heparin mimetics have been developed.

Serine protease inhibitors to treat inflammation: a patent review (2011-2016)

INTRODUCTION

Inflammation is a physiological part of the complex biological response of tissues to counteract various harmful signals. This process involves diverse actors such as immune cells, blood vessels, and nerves as sources of mediators for inflammation control. Among them serine proteases are key elements in both physiological and pathological inflammation.

AREAS COVERED

Serine protease inhibitors to treat inflammatory diseases are being actively investigated by various industrial and academic institutions. The present review covers patent literature on serine protease inhibitors for the therapy of inflammatory diseases patented between 2011 and 2016.

EXPERT OPINION

Serine proteases regulating inflammation are versatile enzymes, usually involved in proinflammatory cytokine production and activation of immune cells. Their dysregulation during inflammation can have devastating consequences, promoting various diseases including skin and lung inflammation, neuroinflammation, and inflammatory arthritis. Several serine proteases were selected for their contribution to inflammatory diseases and significant efforts that are spread to develop inhibitors. Strategies developed for inhibitor identification consist on either peptide-based inhibitor derived from endogenous protein inhibitors or small-organic molecules. It is also worth noting that among the recent patents on serine protease inhibitors related to inflammation a significant number are related to retinal vascular dysfunction and skin diseases.

Diabetic Microvascular Disease: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement

Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes adversely affect the microvasculature in multiple organs. Our understanding of the genesis of this injury and of potential interventions to prevent, limit, or reverse injury/dysfunction is continuously evolving. This statement reviews biochemical/cellular pathways involved in facilitating and abrogating microvascular injury. The statement summarizes the types of injury/dysfunction that occur in the three classical diabetes microvascular target tissues, the eye, the kidney, and the peripheral nervous system; the statement also reviews information on the effects of diabetes and insulin resistance on the microvasculature of skin, brain, adipose tissue, and cardiac and skeletal muscle. Despite extensive and intensive research, it is disappointing that microvascular complications of diabetes continue to compromise the quantity and quality of life for patients with diabetes. Hopefully, by understanding and building on current research findings, we will discover new approaches for prevention and treatment that will be effective for future generations.

Pathogenesis of Drug Induced Non-Allergic Angioedema: A Review of Unusual Etiologies

Angioedema is the swelling of mucosal and sub-mucosal tissue. Typically, it manifests as the swelling of the face, lips, and tongue. Angioedema can be severe and life threatening when it involves the respiratory tract. Drug induced allergic angioedema and drug induced non-allergic angioedema differ in their mediator, their clinical presentations, and their management. In drug induced non-allergic angioedema, symptoms are resistant to antihistamine and corticosteroid treatment. The aim of the analysis was to identify which medications are associated with drug-induced non-allergic angioedema and to understand the mechanism of action via which of these medication cause angioedema.

Plasma Kallikrein Inhibitors in Cardiovascular Disease: An Innovative Therapeutic Approach

Plasma prekallikrein is the liver-derived precursor of the trypsin-like serine protease plasma kallikrein, and circulates in plasma bound to high molecular weight kininogen. Plasma prekallikrein is activated to plasma kallikrein by activated factor XII or prolylcarboxypeptidase. Plasma kallikrein regulates the activity of multiple proteolytic cascades in the cardiovascular system such as the intrinsic pathway of coagulation, the kallikrein-kinin system, the fibrinolytic system, the renin-angiotensin system, and the complement pathways. As such, plasma kallikrein plays a central role in the pathogenesis of thrombosis, inflammation, and blood pressure regulation. Under physiological conditions, plasma kallikrein serves as a cardioprotective enzyme. However, its increased plasma concentration or hyperactivity perpetuates cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this article, we review the biochemistry and cell biology of plasma kallikrein and summarize data from preclinical and clinical studies that have established important functions of this serine protease in CVD states. Finally, we propose plasma kallikrein inhibitors as a novel class of drugs with potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of CVDs.

Directed evolution of three-finger toxin to produce serine protease inhibitors

Directed evolution is a very popular strategy for improving biophysical properties and even for generating proteins with novel functions. Recent advances in combinatorial protein engineering mean it is now possible to develop protein scaffolds that could substitute for whole antibody-associated properties as emerging therapeutic proteins. In particular, disulfide-rich proteins are attractive templates for directed evolution in the search for novel molecules because they can regulate the activities of receptors, enzymes, and other molecules. Previously, we demonstrated that functional regulatory molecules against interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) could be obtained by directed evolution of the three-finger toxin (3F) scaffold. In the present study, trypsin was selected as a target for directed evolution to further explore the potential use of the 3F cDNA display library. After seven rounds of selection, the DNA sequences converged. The recombinant proteins produced by the selected candidates had inhibitory activity against trypsin (Ki of 33-450 nM). Three of the six groups had Ki values that were comparable to bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor and soybean trypsin inhibitor. Two of the candidates also had inhibitory effects against chymotrypsin and kallikrein. This study suggests that 3F protein is suitable for the preparation of high-diversity libraries that can be utilized to obtain protease inhibitors. In addition to our previous successful targeting of IL-6R, the technique developed in our studies may have wide applications in the generation of regulatory molecules for targets of interest, such as receptors, enzymes for research, diagnostic applications, and therapeutic uses.

PF-04886847 (an inhibitor of plasma kallikrein) attenuates inflammatory mediators and activation of blood coagulation in rat model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis

The plasma kallikrein-mediated proteolysis regulates both thrombosis and inflammation. Previous study has shown that PF-04886847 is a potent and competitive inhibitor of kallikrein, suggesting that it might be useful for the treatment of kallikrein-kinin mediated inflammatory and thrombotic disorders. In the rat model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -induced sepsis used in this study, pretreatment of rats with PF-04886847 (1 mg/kg) prior to LPS (10 mg/kg) prevented endotoxin-induced increase in granulocyte count in the systemic circulation. PF-04886847 significantly reduced the elevated plasma 6-keto PGF1α levels in LPS treated rats, suggesting that PF-04886847 could be useful in preventing hypotensive shock during sepsis. PF-04886847 did not inhibit LPS-induced increase in plasma TNF-α level. Pretreatment of rats with PF-04886847 prior to LPS did not attenuate endotoxin-induced decrease in platelet count and plasma fibrinogen levels as well as increase in plasma D-dimer levels. PF-04886847 did not protect the animals against LPS-mediated acute hepatic and renal injury and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Since prekallikrein (the zymogen form of plasma kallikrein) deficient patients have prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) without having any bleeding disorder, the anti-thrombotic property and mechanism of action of PF-04886847 was assessed. In a rabbit balloon injury model designed to mimic clinical conditions of acute thrombotic events, PF-04886847 reduced thrombus mass dose-dependently. PF-04886847 (1 mg/kg) prolonged both aPTT and prothrombin time (PT) in a dose-dependent manner. Although the findings of this study indicate that PF-04886847 possesses limited anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory effects, PF-04886847 may have therapeutic potential in other kallikrein-kinin mediated diseases.

Influence of a novel inhibitor (UM8190) of prolylcarboxypeptidase (PRCP) on appetite and thrombosis

Preclinical pharmacological characterization of a novel inhibitor (UM8190) of prolylcarboxypeptidase (PRCP) was investigated. We synthesized and evaluated a library of proline-based analogs as prospective recombinant PRCP (rPRCP) inhibitors and inhibitors of PRCP-dependent prekallikrein (PK) activation on human pulmonary artery endothelial cells (HPAEC). Among the newly synthesized compounds, UM8190 was further characterized in vivo using methods that encompassed a mouse carotid artery thrombosis model and animal model of food consumption. (S)-N-dodecyl-1-((S)-pyrrolidine-2-carbonyl) pyrrolidine-2-carboxamide [Compound 3 (UM8190)] was selected for further evaluation from the initial assessment of its PRCP inhibitory action (K(i)= 43 μM) coupled with its ability to block PRCP-dependent PK activation on HPAEC (K(i)= 34 μM). UM8190 demonstrated excellent selectivity against a panel of carboxypeptidases and serine proteases and blocked bradykinin (BK) generation and BK-induced permeability by 100%, suggesting that it may be useful in preventing the local production of large amounts of BK. Furthermore, UM8190 showed an anorexigenic effect when systemically administered to fasted mice, reducing food intake in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In a mouse carotid artery thrombosis model, it also demonstrated an antithrombotic effect. UM8190 is a selective PRCP inhibitor and it may represent a new anorexigenic, and antithrombotic drug, that works by inhibiting PRCP-mediated mechanisms.