Dealing with the clandestine nature of wildlife-trade market surveys

Mitigating Human Impacts on Wild Animal Welfare

Human activities negatively impact the welfare of wild vertebrates in many different contexts globally, and countless individual animals are affected. Growing concern for wild animal welfare, especially in relation to conservation, is evident. While research on wild animal welfare lags behind that focused on captive animals, minimising human-induced harm to wild animals is a key principle. This study examines examples of negative anthropogenic impacts on wild animal welfare, how these may be mitigated and what further research is required, including examples from wildlife management, biodiversity conservation, wildlife tourism and wildlife trade. Further, it discusses the relationship between animal welfare and biodiversity conservation, and synergies that may be achieved between these. Ultimately, it is discussed how the welfare of wild animals may be balanced with other priorities to ensure that welfare is afforded due consideration in interactions between people and wildlife.

Illegal Trade in Protected Sharks: The Case of Artisanal Whale Shark Meat Fisheries in Java, Indonesia

Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, including that of sharks, poses a significant threat to marine ecosystems and individual species. I use data from the media, tourists, and artisan fishermen to gain insight into the trade in the world's largest fish, the whale shark (Rhincodon typus). I focus on the Indonesian island of Java where, along its south coast, whale sharks are landed and butchered on the beach in view of hundreds of people and local media. Whale sharks are typically caught in fishing nets and dragged alongside boats to the shallows, where they are butchered. The meat and oil (valued at ~USD 2000 per shark) are sold and distributed within the community. I document 58 landings of mainly immature whale sharks (2002-2022). Artisanal fishermen see the landing of whale sharks as a fortuitous event, but the species is protected, and Indonesia is a signatory to various international agreements that preclude the fishing of whale sharks. It is imperative for the conservation of whale sharks that the various parties in Indonesia adhere better to their own rules and regulations protecting this species.

Exploring market-based wildlife trade dynamics in Bangladesh

Wildlife markets are hotspots for illegal wildlife trade, with traders operating as a result of weak monitoring and law enforcement. Knowledge of species traded, sources, and routes used for transport is needed to identify illegal wildlife trade markets and intervene to stem trade. We conducted surveys in 13 wildlife markets across Bangladesh every month during January-December 2019 to assess the abundance and diversity of wildlife taxa traded and the factors driving this trade. Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Psittaciformes, Artiodactyla, Carnivora and Testudines were the most traded orders. Wildlife markets were also centres of trade for high-value species, including the tiger Panthera tigris, crocodile Crocodylus porosus and tortoises. In hill markets and peri-urban markets the most commonly sold species originated from nearby forests, whereas urban markets included both native species and exotic species sourced internationally. Market type, road links to the market, the presence of law enforcement agencies, proximity to a port and form of sale (live animals or byproducts) all significantly influenced what is being traded. Trade of mammals, reptiles, high-value wildlife species and threatened species was less common in markets proximal to law enforcement agencies. Markets close to seaports or airports were more likely to sell mammals, threatened species and high-value wildlife. Based on our results, we recommend a set of interventions to help reduce market-based wildlife trade in Bangladesh.

Evaluating the reliability of media reports for gathering information about illegal wildlife trade seizures

Illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is threatening many species across the world. It is important to better understand the scale and characteristics of IWT to inform conservation priorities and actions. However, IWT usually takes place covertly, meaning that the data on species, trade routes and volumes is limited. This means that conservationists often have to rely on publicly available law enforcement reports of seizures as potential indicators of the magnitude and characteristics of IWT. Still, even these data may be difficult to access, leading conservationists to use media reports of seizures instead. This is the case in countries like Nepal, which have limited capacity in data keeping and reporting, and no centralized data management system. Yet reliance on media reports risks introducing further biases, which are rarely acknowledged or discussed. Here we characterize IWT in Nepal by comparing data from three sources of information on IWT between January 2005 and July 2017: seizure reports from three Nepali national daily newspapers, official seizure records for Kathmandu district, and data on additional enforcement efforts against IWT in Nepal. We found a strong positive correlation between the number of official and media-reported seizures over time, but media under-reported seizure numbers, with 78% of seizures going unreported. Seizures of charismatic, protected species were reported more often and seizure reports involving tigers were most likely to be reported (57%). Media reports appeared to be a good indicator of trends and the species being seized but not overall seizure number, with the media largely underestimating total seizure numbers. Therefore, media reports cannot be solely relied upon when it comes to informing conservation decision-making. We recommend that conservationists triangulate different data sources when using seizure data reported in the media to more rigorously characterise IWT.

Tradition and trade: culture and exploitation of avian fauna by a rural community surrounding protected areas in the south of Bahia's State, Northeastern Brazil

BACKGROUND

Illegal capture and trade of wild birds are some of the most present types of wildlife trade in Brazil, and are often associated with cultural and socioenvironmental aspects. Those habits are particularly present in rural communities, where bird trade can be a source of income in dire economic situations and bird-keeping is a cultural trait passed down from generations.

METHODS

We conducted a series of semi-structured interviews with bird-keepers and traders within the surrounding region of the Parque Nacional de Boa Nova, inquiring about local customs and practices related to bird-keeping, bird trade and bird capture, as well as how these were affected by the establishment of protected areas nearby. We then outlined the main trends and perceptions in a quantitative and a qualitative approach.

RESULTS

A total of 21 avian species were mentioned as being used as pets and in commercialization, contests and breeding, most of them occurring naturally in the region. Most respondents were men possessing low levels of education and income. We observed a series of specialized practices regarding bird-keeping, from basic maintenance of captive individuals in order to ensure the animal's health, to interspecies breeding as to produce hybrid individuals. Mentioned methods used to capture wild birds often involved specialized traps and were conducted mainly within the national park's area. Bird trade was said to occur mostly in urban settlements, and the value of captive birds was said to vary, based on species and beforehand training. The official establishment of the protected area impaired all practices related to bird-keeping and trade, mostly as a result of increased surveillance by environmental agencies.

CONCLUSION

The collected information presents a series of specialized habits and practices involved in bird-keeping, bird capture and bird trade, many of them being associated with the local avifauna surrounding the region. The establishment of protected areas affected local perceptions regarding bird-keeping and related practices mostly through fear of penalty, although individuals demonstrated some knowledge about how to evade surveillance. We recommend further studies about effective ways to integrate local communities in nearby protected areas' conservation.

Disentangling the Legal and Illegal Wildlife Trade-Insights from Indonesian Wildlife Market Surveys

Simple Summary

Throughout the world, wild-caught animals are traded in wildlife markets, but it is not always easy to disentangle what part of the trade is legal and what part is not. This may diminish the value of conducting wildlife market surveys. Conservationists narrowly focus on whether a species is legally protected, whereas in most countries there are several laws and regulations in place that guide the trade in wild-caught animals. Here we present empirical data from various species of birds recorded during wildlife market surveys in Indonesia and assess whether violations take place in terms of (1) protected species, (2) harvest quota, (3) welfare, (4) transport restrictions, and (5) importation. Our five distinctly different case studies showed that while it is challenging to distinguish legal and illegal aspects, in all cases it was evident that at least some aspects of the trade were in violation of Indonesia’s domestic legislation. By focusing on a wider range of legal restrictions, it is possible to get a good insight into the legality of wildlife trade, what interventions can be made, and overall, our study underscores the value of conducting wildlife trade surveys.

Abstract

It is challenging to disentangle the legal and illegal aspects of wild-caught animals that are traded in wildlife markets or online, and this may diminish the value of conducting wildlife trade surveys. We present empirical studies on the trade in birds (ducks, owls, songbirds, non-passerines) in Indonesia (2005 to 2021). Based on visits to wildlife markets, wholesale traders, and monitoring of an Instagram account, we examine if five specific pieces of legislation (domestic and international) are adhered to: (1) protected species, (2) harvest quota, (3) welfare, (4) provincial transport restrictions, and (5) illegal import of CITES-listed species. Our five distinctly different case studies showed that in each case, certain rules and regulations were adhered to, whilst others were violated to varying degrees. When trade involved non-protected species, there was frequently a lack of harvest quotas or trade occurred above these allocated quotas. Basic welfare provisions were regularly and habitually violated. Visiting wildlife markets and recording first-hand what is openly offered for sale is a highly reliable, verifiable, and valuable method of data collection that can give insight in numerous aspects of the animal trade. Our research provides support for recognising the urgency for the government to take appropriate action to curb all the illegal aspects of the bird trade in Indonesia.

What is the effect of poaching activity on wildlife species?

Poaching is a pervasive threat to wildlife, yet quantifying the direct effect of poaching on wildlife is rarely possible because both wildlife and threat data are infrequently collected concurrently. In this study, we used poaching data collected through the Management Information System (MIST) and wildlife camera trap data collected by the Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring (TEAM) network from 2014 to 2017 in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. We implemented co-occurrence multi-season occupancy models that accounted for imperfect detection to investigate the effect of poaching on initial occupancy, colonization, and extinction of five mammal species. Specifically, we focused on two species of conservation concern (mountain gorilla [Gorilla beringei beringei] and golden monkey [Cercopithecus mitis kandti]), and three species targeted by poachers (black-fronted duiker [Cephalophus nigrifrons], bushbuck [Tragelaphus scriptus], and African buffalo [Syncerus caffer]). We found that the probability of local extinction was highest in sites with poaching activity for golden monkey and bushbuck. In addition, the probability of initial occupancy for golden monkey was highest in sites without poaching activity. We only found weak evidence of effects of poaching on parameters governing the occupancy dynamics of the other species. All species showed evidence of poaching presence affecting the probability of detection of the wildlife species. This is the first study to our knowledge to combine direct threat observations from ranger-based monitoring data with camera trap wildlife observations to quantify the effect of poaching on wildlife. Given the widespread collection of ranger-based monitoring and camera trap data, our approach is broadly applicable to numerous protected areas and has the potential to significantly improve conservation management. Specifically, the relationship between poaching activity and wildlife population dynamics can be combined with information on the relationship between ranger patrols and poaching activity to develop models useful for making wise decisions about ranger patrol deployment.

Quantifying Illegal Extraction of Sea Turtles in Costa Rica

Estimates of illegal wildlife trade vary significantly and are often based on incomplete datasets, inferences from CITES permits or customs seizures. As a result, annual global estimates of illegal wildlife trade can vary by several billions of US dollars. Translating these figures into species extraction rates is equally challenging, and estimating illegal take accurately is not achievable for many species. Due to their nesting strategies that allow for census data collection, sea turtles offer an exception. On the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, three sea turtle species (leatherback, Dermochelys coriacea; green, Chelonia mydas; and hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata) are exploited by poachers. Despite the consumption of turtle eggs and meat being illegal, they are consumed as a cultural food source and seasonal treat. Conservation programmes monitor nesting beaches, collect abundance data and record poaching events. Despite the availability of robust long-term datasets, quantifying the rate of poaching has yet to be undertaken. Using data from the globally important nesting beach, Tortuguero, as well as beaches Playa Norte and Pacuare on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, we modelled the spatial and temporal distribution of poaching of the three sea turtle species. Here, we present data from 2006 to 2019 on a stretch of coastline covering c.37 km. We identified poaching hotspots that correlated with populated areas. While the poaching hotspots persisted over time, we found poaching is declining at each of our sites. However, we urge caution when interpreting this result as the impact of poaching varies between species. Given their low abundance on these beaches, the poaching pressure on leatherback and hawksbill turtles is far greater than the impact on the abundant green turtles. We attribute the decline in poaching to supply-side conservation interventions in place at these beaches. Finally, we highlight the value of data sharing and collaborations between conservation NGOs.

Wildlife trade shifts from brick-and-mortar markets to virtual marketplaces: A case study of birds of prey trade in Thailand

The shift of wildlife trade from brick-and-mortar markets to virtual online marketplaces is reported using the trade of birds of prey (raptors) in Thailand from 1968 to 2019 as a case study. We analyzed data obtained from physical market survey data for 2,782 individuals from 27 species, with 2,420 individuals reported in early surveys (1968-1988) and 362 individuals reported in later surveys (2003-2015) and online surveys (February 2017 to January 2019). We compared information on asking prices and what species were traded using two comparative approaches to analyze how species composition may have changed over time (physical markets and online platforms; pre-Internet and Internet era). In comparison with the five previous market surveys, we did not find a statistically significant difference between species and availability of species offered for sale when comparing physical bird markets and online markets. In all data sets, biological factors such as wingspan were significant factors in explaining price variation. We conclude that sustained monitoring is needed to make direct comparisons between the trade platforms. With a continued increase of wildlife trade on online platforms, we recommend increased regulation and enforcement of wildlife trade laws.

Illegal trade of songbirds: an analysis of the activity in an area of northeast Brazil

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to analyze the chain and dynamics of the trade of wild birds between keepers and traders in an area of northeast Brazil. Profit from the purchase and sale of these animals in the trade chain was also estimated.

METHODS

The information was obtained through interviews with direct participants in the wild bird trade chain.

RESULTS

We recorded a total of 34 bird species involved in illegal trade. In general, the purchase and sale values of songbirds are associated with the attractiveness and songs of the birds. Regarding the commercial potential of the species, those with high numbers of traded individuals had higher average purchase values and, especially, sale values. Birds with lower purchase values showed higher sale profits and were sold in large numbers. The purchase and sale values of songbirds in the present study show a significant economic return for those involved in this activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study may provide data to support future studies on the conservation of wild birds, assisting in monitoring illegal trade, a persistent problem in the region studied.

The complete mitochondrial genome of yellow-bibbed lory, Lorius chlorocercus (Psittaciformes Psittacidae), with its phylogenetic relationship

In this study, the complete 17,855 bp mitochondrial genome of Lorius chlorocercus was obtained using sanger sequencing. It consists of 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNAs, 2 ribosomal RNAs, and a control region. The overall base composition is 22.5% T, 33.18% C, 30.42% A, and13.9% G. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using neighbour-joining (NJ) method based on 19 parrot species. Phylogenetic analysis showed that L. chlorocercus was closest to Melopsittacus undulates. The complete mitogenome data would be useful for further study on the molecular evolution of L. chlorocercus.

Digital surveillance: a novel approach to monitoring the illegal wildlife trade

A dearth of information obscures the true scale of the global illegal trade in wildlife. Herein, we introduce an automated web crawling surveillance system developed to monitor reports on illegally traded wildlife. A resource for enforcement officials as well as the general public, the freely available website, http://www.healthmap.org/wildlifetrade, provides a customizable visualization of worldwide reports on interceptions of illegally traded wildlife and wildlife products. From August 1, 2010 to July 31, 2011, publicly available English language illegal wildlife trade reports from official and unofficial sources were collected and categorized by location and species involved. During this interval, 858 illegal wildlife trade reports were collected from 89 countries. Countries with the highest number of reports included India (n = 146, 15.6%), the United States (n = 143, 15.3%), South Africa (n = 75, 8.0%), China (n = 41, 4.4%), and Vietnam (n = 37, 4.0%). Species reported as traded or poached included elephants (n = 107, 12.5%), rhinoceros (n = 103, 12.0%), tigers (n = 68, 7.9%), leopards (n = 54, 6.3%), and pangolins (n = 45, 5.2%). The use of unofficial data sources, such as online news sites and social networks, to collect information on international wildlife trade augments traditional approaches drawing on official reporting and presents a novel source of intelligence with which to monitor and collect news in support of enforcement against this threat to wildlife conservation worldwide.

Egg forensics: an appraisal of DNA sequencing to assist in species identification of illegally smuggled eggs

Psittaciformes (parrots and cockatoos) are charismatic birds, their plumage and capacity for learning make them highly sought after pets. The illegal trade in parrots and cockatoos poses a serious threat to the viability of native populations; in addition, species transported to non-endemic areas may potentially vector disease and genetically 'pollute' local native avifauna. To reduce the logistical difficulties associated with trafficking live birds, smugglers often transport eggs. This creates a problem for authorities in elucidating accurate species identification without the laborious task of incubation and hand rearing until a morphological identification can be made. Here, we use 99 avian eggs seized from carriers coming into and within Australia, as a result of suspected illegal trade. We investigate and evaluate the use of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to accurately identify eggs to family, genus or species level. However, Identification of a species based on percentage mtDNA similarities is difficult without good representations of the inter- and intra-levels of species variation. Based on the available reference database, we were able to identify 52% of the eggs to species level. Of those, 10 species from eight genera were detected, all of which belong to the parrot (Psittacidae) and cockatoo (Cacatuidae) families. Of the remaining 48%, a further 36% of eggs were identified to genus level, and 12% identified to family level using our assignment criteria. Clearly the lack of validated DNA reference sequences is hindering our ability to accurately assign a species identity, and accordingly, we advocate that more attention needs to be paid to establishing validated, multi locus mtDNA reference databases for exotic birds that can both assist in genetic identifications and withstand legal scrutiny.

The development and validation of a single SNaPshot multiplex for tiger species and subspecies identification--implications for forensic purposes

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is currently listed on Appendix I of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; this affords it the highest level of international protection. To aid in the investigation of alleged illegal trade in tiger body parts and derivatives, molecular approaches have been developed to identify biological material as being of tiger in origin. Some countries also require knowledge of the exact tiger subspecies present in order to prosecute anyone alleged to be trading in tiger products. In this study we aimed to develop and validate a reliable single assay to identify tiger species and subspecies simultaneously; this test is based on identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the tiger mitochondrial genome. The mitochondrial DNA sequence from four of the five extant putative tiger subspecies that currently exist in the wild were obtained and combined with DNA sequence data from 492 tiger and 349 other mammalian species available on GenBank. From the sequence data a total of 11 SNP loci were identified as suitable for further analyses. Five SNPs were species-specific for tiger and six amplify one of the tiger subspecies-specific SNPs, three of which were specific to P. t. sumatrae and the other three were specific to P. t. tigris. The multiplex assay was able to reliably identify 15 voucher tiger samples. The sensitivity of the test was 15,000 mitochondrial DNA copies (approximately 0.26 pg), indicating that it will work on trace amounts of tissue, bone or hair samples. This simple test will add to the DNA-based methods currently being used to identify the presence of tiger within mixed samples.