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Červená B, Prokopová T, Cameira RM, Pafčo B, Samaš P, Romportl D, Uwamahoro C, Noheri JB, Ntwari AE, Bahizi M, Nzayisenga G, Nziza J, Gilardi K, Eckardt W, Ndagijimana F, Mudakikwa A, Muvunyi R, Uwingeli P, Cranfield M, Šlapeta J, Petrželková KJ, Modrý D. Anoplocephalid tapeworms in mountain gorillas ( Gorilla beringei beringei) inhabiting the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Parasitology 2024; 151:135-150. [PMID: 38017606 PMCID: PMC10941052 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182023001178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Cestodes of the family Anoplocephalidae parasitize a wide range of usually herbivorous hosts including e.g. rodents, ungulates, primates, elephants and hyraxes. While in some hosts, the epidemiology of the infection is well studied, information is lacking in others. In this study of mountain gorillas in the Virunga Massif, an extensive sample set comprising adult cestodes collected via necropsies, proglottids shed in feces, and finally, fecal samples from both night nests and identified individuals were analysed. Anoplocephala gorillae was the dominant cestode species detected in night nest samples and individually known gorillas, of which only 1 individual hosted a Bertiella sp. It was shown that the 2 species can be distinguished through microscopy based on egg morphology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for diagnostics of both species were provided. Sequences of mitochondrial (cox 1) and nuclear (ITS1, 18S rDNA, 28S rDNA) markers were used to evaluate the phylogenetic position of the 2 cestodes detected in mountain gorillas. Both types of fecal samples, from night nests and from identified individuals, provided comparable information about the prevalence of anoplocephalid cestodes, although the analysis of samples collected from identified gorilla individuals showed significant intra-individual fluctuation of A. gorillae egg shedding within a short period. Therefore, multiple samples should be examined to obtain reliable data for wildlife health management programmes, especially when application of anthelmintic treatment is considered. However, while A. gorillae is apparently a common symbiont of mountain gorillas, it does not seem to impair the health of its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Červená
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tereza Prokopová
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Rita Maria Cameira
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Pafčo
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Peter Samaš
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Dušan Romportl
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jan Šlapeta
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Klára Judita Petrželková
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Liberec Zoo, Liberec, Czech Republic
| | - David Modrý
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources/CINeZ, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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2
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Smiley Evans T, Lowenstine LJ, Ssebide B, Barry PA, Kinani JF, Nizeyimana F, Noheli JB, Okello R, Mudakikwa A, Cranfield MR, Mazet JAK, Johnson CK, Gilardi KV. Simian homologues of human herpesviruses and implications for novel viral introduction to free-living mountain gorillas. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23439. [PMID: 36263518 PMCID: PMC11017921 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo is frequently in contact with humans through tourism, research activities, and illegal entry of people into protected gorilla habitat. Herpesviruses, which are ubiquitous in primates, have the potential to be shared in any setting where humans and gorillas share habitat. Based on serological findings and clinical observations of orofacial ulcerated lesions resembling herpetic lesions, an alpha-herpesvirus resembling human herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has long been suspected to be present in human-habituated mountain gorillas in the wild. While the etiology of orofacial lesions in the wild has not been confirmed, HSV-1 has been suspected in captively-housed mountain gorillas and confirmed in a co-housed confiscated Grauer's gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri). To better characterize herpesviruses infecting mountain gorillas and to determine the presence/absence of HSV-1 in the free-living population, we conducted a population-wide survey to test for the presence of orally shed herpesviruses. DNA was extracted from discarded chewed plants collected from 294 individuals from 26 groups, and samples were screened by polymerase chain reaction using pan-herpesvirus and HSV-1-specific assays. We found no evidence that human herpesviruses had infected free-ranging mountain gorillas. However, we found gorilla-specific homologs to human herpesviruses, including cytomegaloviruses (GbbCMV-1 and 2), a lymphocryptovirus (GbbLCV-1), and a new rhadinovirus (GbbRHV-1) with similar characteristics (i.e., timing of primary infection, shedding in multiple age groups, and potential modes of transmission) to their human counterparts, human cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tierra Smiley Evans
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Linda J Lowenstine
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Benard Ssebide
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Peter A Barry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jean Felix Kinani
- One Health Approach for Conservation (OHAC), Gorilla Health, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Fred Nizeyimana
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jean Bosco Noheli
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ricky Okello
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Michael R Cranfield
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jonna A K Mazet
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Christine K Johnson
- Epicenter for Disease Dynamics, One Health Institute, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Kirsten V Gilardi
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
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Moore JF, Uzabaho E, Musana A, Uwingeli P, Hines JE, Nichols JD. What is the effect of poaching activity on wildlife species? Ecol Appl 2021; 31:e02397. [PMID: 34212448 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Poaching is a pervasive threat to wildlife, yet quantifying the direct effect of poaching on wildlife is rarely possible because both wildlife and threat data are infrequently collected concurrently. In this study, we used poaching data collected through the Management Information System (MIST) and wildlife camera trap data collected by the Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring (TEAM) network from 2014 to 2017 in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. We implemented co-occurrence multi-season occupancy models that accounted for imperfect detection to investigate the effect of poaching on initial occupancy, colonization, and extinction of five mammal species. Specifically, we focused on two species of conservation concern (mountain gorilla [Gorilla beringei beringei] and golden monkey [Cercopithecus mitis kandti]), and three species targeted by poachers (black-fronted duiker [Cephalophus nigrifrons], bushbuck [Tragelaphus scriptus], and African buffalo [Syncerus caffer]). We found that the probability of local extinction was highest in sites with poaching activity for golden monkey and bushbuck. In addition, the probability of initial occupancy for golden monkey was highest in sites without poaching activity. We only found weak evidence of effects of poaching on parameters governing the occupancy dynamics of the other species. All species showed evidence of poaching presence affecting the probability of detection of the wildlife species. This is the first study to our knowledge to combine direct threat observations from ranger-based monitoring data with camera trap wildlife observations to quantify the effect of poaching on wildlife. Given the widespread collection of ranger-based monitoring and camera trap data, our approach is broadly applicable to numerous protected areas and has the potential to significantly improve conservation management. Specifically, the relationship between poaching activity and wildlife population dynamics can be combined with information on the relationship between ranger patrols and poaching activity to develop models useful for making wise decisions about ranger patrol deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer F Moore
- Department of Wildlife Conservation and Ecology, University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Eustrate Uzabaho
- International Gorilla Conservation Programme, Seventh Day Adventist North Conference Building, Muhoza Sector, Musanze, Northern Province, Rwanda
| | - Abel Musana
- Rwanda Development Board, Volcanoes National Park, Kinigi Sector, Musanze, Northern Province, Rwanda
| | - Prosper Uwingeli
- Rwanda Development Board, Volcanoes National Park, Kinigi Sector, Musanze, Northern Province, Rwanda
| | - James E Hines
- U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland, 20708, USA
| | - James D Nichols
- U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland, 20708, USA
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Gilardi K, Nziza J, Ssebide B, Syaluha EK, Muvunyi R, Aruho R, Shalukoma C, Seguya A, Masozera AB. Endangered mountain gorillas and COVID-19: One health lessons for prevention and preparedness during a global pandemic. Am J Primatol 2021; 84:e23291. [PMID: 34110030 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The world's 1063 mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) live in two subpopulations at the borders of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda. The majority of mountain gorillas are human-habituated to facilitate tourism and research, which brings mountain gorillas into close proximity of people daily. Wild great apes are proven to be susceptible to human pathogens, including viruses that have caused fatal respiratory disease in mountain gorillas (e.g., human metapneumovirus1 ). This is the result of the close genetic relatedness of humans and gorillas as species, and the structural and genetic similarity in molecular receptors that allow viruses to infect cells2 . At the time of writing, there is no evidence that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), has infected a mountain gorilla. However, due to the significant potential for human-to-gorilla transmission, mountain gorilla range States took immediate steps to minimize the COVID-19 threat. These actions included a combination of preventive practice around gorillas and other great apes (e.g., mandatory face mask use, increased "social" minimum distancing from gorillas) as well as human public health measures (e.g., daily health/fever screenings, COVID-19 screening, and quarantines). Minimization of the COVID-19 threat also required socioeconomic decision-making and political will, as all gorilla tourism was suspended by late March 2020 and guidelines developed for tourism reopening. A consortium that collaborates and coordinates on mountain gorilla management and conservation, working within an intergovernmental institutional framework, took a multifaceted One Health approach to address the COVID-19 threat to mountain gorillas by developing a phased contingency plan for prevention and response. The aim of this paper is to describe how range States and partners achieved this collaborative planning effort, with intent that this real-world experience will inform similar actions at other great ape sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Gilardi
- Gorilla Doctors (MGVP, Inc.), Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Julius Nziza
- Gorilla Doctors (MGVP, Inc.), Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Benard Ssebide
- Gorilla Doctors (MGVP, Inc.), Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Eddy Kambale Syaluha
- Gorilla Doctors (MGVP, Inc.), Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Richard Muvunyi
- Department of Tourism and Conservation, Rwanda Development Board, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Robert Aruho
- Monitoring and Research Program, Uganda Wildlife Authority, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Chantal Shalukoma
- Institute Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature, Virunga National Park, Rumangabo, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Andrew Seguya
- Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, Kigali, Rwanda
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Ostrofsky KR, Robbins MM. Fruit-feeding and activity patterns of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Am J Phys Anthropol 2020; 173:3-20. [PMID: 32274796 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Availability of fruit is an important factor influencing variation in great ape foraging strategies and activity patterns. This study aims to quantify how frugivory influences activity budgets across age-sex classes of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. MATERIALS AND METHODS Daily proportions of fruit-feeding and activity budgets were calculated using 6 years of observational data on four habituated groups. We fitted generalized linear mixed models to test for age-sex differences in the amount of fruit-feeding, and to test whether these factors influence the proportion of time spent feeding, resting, and traveling. RESULTS Bwindi mountain gorillas spent on average 15% of feeding time consuming fruit, with monthly variation ranging from 0 to 70%. Greater amounts of fruit-feeding were associated with more time feeding and traveling, and less time resting. Immatures tended to spend more feeding time on fruit than adults, but less overall time feeding and more time traveling. There were no significant differences in the amount of fruit-feeding and overall feeding time between adult females and silverback males, despite differences in body size. DISCUSSION This study confirms that gorillas are frugivorous, and only the Virunga mountain gorilla population can be characterized as highly folivorous. Along with other frugivorous great apes, Bwindi mountain gorillas alter their activity patterns in response to varying amounts of fruit in their diet. A better understanding of how variable ecological conditions can drive diversity even within a subspecies has important implications for understanding relationships between ecology, body size, and foraging strategies in great apes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly R Ostrofsky
- Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Martha M Robbins
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Kalema-Zikusoka G, Rubanga S, Mutahunga B, Sadler R. Prevention of Cryptosporidium and GIARDIA at the Human/Gorilla/Livestock Interface. Front Public Health 2019; 6:364. [PMID: 30619805 PMCID: PMC6302101 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) are critically endangered and found in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest and Virunga Volcanoes. Habitat destruction, high human population growth rates, poverty, and disease are threatening the survival of mountain gorillas. A study implemented in 2010 investigated the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia sps., as part of a long-term gorilla health-monitoring program at Bwindi through regular fecal sample collection, and comparative pathogen analysis at the human/gorilla/livestock interface. Samples collected from habituated and non-habituated gorillas, community-owned livestock herds and people at Bwindi were screened for Cryptosporidium and Giardia sps. using ImmunoSTAT Commercial Field Kit and doubtful samples confirmed with Direct Fluorescence Antibody Test (DFA). Giardia was found in 5.5% of livestock, 40% of symptomatic humans from the local hospital and 9.5% of asymptomatic park staff, but not in gorillas. Cryptosporidium was found in 3.1% of habituated gorillas, 4.7% of livestock, and 62.4% of park staff. Whereas, previous studies have compared Cryptosporidium and Giardia sps. in gorillas and livestock, this is the first study making a comparison in humans, gorillas and livestock. Unlike previous studies in Bwindi and Virungas, no Giardia sp. was found in gorillas. The improving hygiene and sanitation of local communities sharing a habitat with gorillas through Village Health and Conservation Teams (VHCTs) established in 2007, could have contributed to the decreased prevalence of Giardia in this mountain gorilla population. Cryptosporidium sp. only found in the habituated gorillas could be associated with human interaction, similar to previous studies. A subsequent VHCT was selected for each village with positive human samples and where gorillas often range, local health centers were mobilized to educate patients on the health risks of collecting water from unprotected sources and cattle water troughs were built. This paper describes a One Health approach to reducing cross species disease transmission at the human/gorilla/livestock interface.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ryan Sadler
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Haggblade MK, Smith WA, Noheri JB, Usanase C, Mudakikwa A, Cranfield MR, Gilardi KVK. OUTCOMES OF SNARE-RELATED INJURIES TO ENDANGERED MOUNTAIN GORILLAS ( GORILLA BERINGEI BERINGEI) IN RWANDA. J Wildl Dis 2019; 55:298-303. [PMID: 30284944 DOI: 10.7589/2018-01-008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mountain gorillas ( Gorilla beringei beringei) are one of the most critically endangered great apes in the world. The most common cause of mountain gorilla morbidity and mortality is trauma (e.g., injury from conspecifics or snare entrapment). We conducted a retrospective case-control study of free-ranging, human-habituated mountain gorillas to evaluate factors associated with snare entrapment and the results of clinical intervention. Data were collected from clinical records on all clinical intervention cases ( n=132) in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda, conducted between 1995-2015. Wildlife veterinarians treated 37 gorillas entrapped in snares and 95 gorillas for other clinical conditions (including trauma and respiratory illness). Multivariate statistical analyses revealed that young gorillas (<8 yr old) were more likely than older gorillas to become snared; that comorbidities delayed times to intervention (≥3 d); and that severity of wounds at the time of intervention were associated with increased risk of lasting impairment (including loss of limb or limb function, or death) within 1 mo after intervention. Our results may influence decisions for gorilla health monitoring and treatment to most effectively conserve this critically endangered species.
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Tsuchida S, Kakooza S, Mbehang Nguema PP, Wampande EM, Ushida K. Characteristics of Gorilla-Specific Lactobacillus Isolated from Captive and Wild Gorillas. Microorganisms 2018; 6:microorganisms6030086. [PMID: 30110987 PMCID: PMC6165273 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms6030086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) reside in a wide range of mammals, such as autochthonous intestinal bacteria. In this paper, we present the phenotypic and phylogenetic characteristics of gorilla-specific LAB. Lactobacillus gorillae—previously isolated from the wild and captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)—were successfully isolated from wild mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) in addition to other captive and wild western lowland gorillas. The strains from wild gorillas could ferment D-xylose, arbutine, cellobiose, and trehalose better than those from captive gorillas. By contrast, tolerance to NaCl was higher in isolates from captive gorillas than in those from wild gorillas. This tendency may have been induced by regular foods in zoos, which contain sufficient amount of salts but less amount of indigestible fiber and plant secondary metabolites compared to foods in the wild. All strains of L. gorillae showed inhibitory activities to enteric pathogenic bacteria; however, the activity was significantly higher for strains from wild gorillas than for those from captive gorillas. This may have been induced by the captive condition with routine veterinary intervention. Since L. gorillae can grow in the gastrointestinal tract of gorillas in captivity, the strains from wild mountain gorillas are potential probiotics for gorillas under captive conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayaka Tsuchida
- Academy of Emerging Sciences, Chubu University, 1200 Matsumoto-cho, Kasugai-shi, Aichi 487-8501, Japan.
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan.
| | - Steven Kakooza
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda.
- Novel Minds Science Plexus, P.O. Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda.
| | | | - Eddie M Wampande
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Kazunari Ushida
- Academy of Emerging Sciences, Chubu University, 1200 Matsumoto-cho, Kasugai-shi, Aichi 487-8501, Japan.
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan.
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Hassell JM, Zimmerman D, Cranfield MR, Gilardi K, Mudakikwa A, Ramer J, Nyirakaragire E, Lowenstine LJ. Morbidity and mortality in infant mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): A 46-year retrospective review. Am J Primatol 2017; 79. [PMID: 28749595 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 06/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Long-term studies of morbidity and mortality in free-ranging primates are scarce, but may have important implications for the conservation of extant populations. Infants comprise a particularly important age group, as variation in survival rates may have a strong influence on population dynamics. Since 1968, the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project (MGVP, Inc.) and government partners have conducted a comprehensive health monitoring and disease investigation program on mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In an effort to better understand diseases in this species, we reviewed reliable field reports (n = 37), gross post-mortem (n = 66), and histopathology (n = 53) reports for 103 infants (less than 3.5 years) mountain gorillas in the Virunga Massif. Our aim was to conduct the first comprehensive analysis of causes of infant mortality and to correlate histological evidence with antemortem morbidity in infant mountain gorillas. Causes of morbidity and mortality were described, and compared by age, sex, and over time. Trauma was the most common cause of death in infants (56%), followed by respiratory infections and aspiration (13%). Gastrointestinal parasitism (33%), atypical lymphoid hyperplasia (suggestive of infectious disease) (31%), and hepatic capillariasis (25%) were the most significant causes of antemortem morbidity identified post-mortem. Identifying the causes of mortality and morbidity in infants of this critically endangered species will help to inform policy aimed at their protection and guide ante- and post-mortem health monitoring and clinical decision-making in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Hassell
- Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, UK.,Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, UK
| | | | - Michael R Cranfield
- Gorilla Doctors, MGVP, Inc. and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Kirsten Gilardi
- Gorilla Doctors, MGVP, Inc. and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | | | | | | | - Linda J Lowenstine
- Gorilla Doctors, MGVP, Inc. and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
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10
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Smiley Evans T, Gilardi KVK, Barry PA, Ssebide BJ, Kinani JF, Nizeyimana F, Noheri JB, Byarugaba DK, Mudakikwa A, Cranfield MR, Mazet JAK, Johnson CK. Detection of viruses using discarded plants from wild mountain gorillas and golden monkeys. Am J Primatol 2016; 78:1222-1234. [PMID: 27331804 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases pose one of the most significant threats to the survival of great apes in the wild. The critically endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) is at high risk for contracting human pathogens because approximately 60% of the population is habituated to humans to support a thriving ecotourism program. Disease surveillance for human and non-human primate pathogens is important for population health and management of protected primate species. Here, we evaluate discarded plants from mountain gorillas and sympatric golden monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis kandti), as a novel biological sample to detect viruses that are shed orally. Discarded plant samples were tested for the presence of mammalian-specific genetic material and two ubiquitous DNA and RNA primate viruses, herpesviruses, and simian foamy virus. We collected discarded plant samples from 383 wild human-habituated mountain gorillas and from 18 habituated golden monkeys. Mammalian-specific genetic material was recovered from all plant species and portions of plant bitten or chewed by gorillas and golden monkeys. Gorilla herpesviral DNA was most consistently recovered from plants in which leafy portions were eaten by gorillas. Simian foamy virus nucleic acid was recovered from plants discarded by golden monkeys, indicating that it is also possible to detect RNA viruses from bitten or chewed plants. Our findings show that discarded plants are a useful non-invasive sampling method for detection of viruses that are shed orally in mountain gorillas, sympatric golden monkeys, and potentially other species. This method of collecting specimens from discarded plants is a new non-invasive sampling protocol that can be combined with collection of feces and urine to evaluate the most common routes of viral shedding in wild primates. Am. J. Primatol. 78:1222-1234, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tierra Smiley Evans
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.
| | - Kirsten V K Gilardi
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Peter A Barry
- California National Primate Research Center, Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | | | | | - Fred Nizeyimana
- Gorilla Doctors, Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, Inc., Davis, California
| | - Jean Bosco Noheri
- Gorilla Doctors, Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, Inc., Davis, California
| | | | | | - Michael R Cranfield
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Jonna A K Mazet
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Christine K Johnson
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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Roy J, Arandjelovic M, Bradley BJ, Guschanski K, Stephens CR, Bucknell D, Cirhuza H, Kusamba C, Kyungu JC, Smith V, Robbins MM, Vigilant L. Recent divergences and size decreases of eastern gorilla populations. Biol Lett 2015; 10:20140811. [PMID: 25376805 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2014.0811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared with other African apes, eastern gorillas (Gorilla beringei) have been little studied genetically. We used analysis of autosomal DNA genotypes obtained from non-invasively collected faecal samples to estimate the evolutionary histories of the two extant mountain gorilla populations and the closely related eastern lowland gorillas. Our results suggest that eastern lowland gorillas and mountain gorillas split beginning some 10 000 years ago, followed 5000 years ago by the split of the two mountain gorilla populations of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and the Virungas Massif. All three populations have decreased in effective population size, with particularly substantial 10-fold decreases for the mountain gorillas. These dynamics probably reflect responses to habitat changes resulting from climate fluctuations over the past 20 000 years as well as increasing human influence in this densely populated region in the last several thousand years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Roy
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Mimi Arandjelovic
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Brenda J Bradley
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Katerina Guschanski
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Colleen R Stephens
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Dan Bucknell
- The Gorilla Organization, 110 Gloucester Ave, London NW1 8HX, UK
| | - Henry Cirhuza
- The Gorilla Organization, 110 Gloucester Ave, London NW1 8HX, UK
| | | | | | - Vince Smith
- The Gorilla Organization, 110 Gloucester Ave, London NW1 8HX, UK
| | - Martha M Robbins
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Linda Vigilant
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
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Roy J, Gray M, Stoinski T, Robbins MM, Vigilant L. Fine-scale genetic structure analyses suggest further male than female dispersal in mountain gorillas. BMC Ecol 2014; 14:21. [PMID: 25001262 PMCID: PMC4113491 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-14-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Molecular studies in social mammals rarely compare the inferences gained from genetic analyses with field information, especially in the context of dispersal. In this study, we used genetic data to elucidate sex-specific dispersal dynamics in the Virunga Massif mountain gorilla population (Gorilla beringei beringei), a primate species characterized by routine male and female dispersal from stable mixed-sex social groups. Specifically, we conducted spatial genetic structure analyses for each sex and linked our genetically-based observations with some key demographic and behavioural data from this population. RESULTS To investigate the spatial genetic structure of mountain gorillas, we analysed the genotypes of 193 mature individuals at 11 microsatellite loci by means of isolation-by-distance and spatial autocorrelation analyses. Although not all males and females disperse, female gorillas displayed an isolation-by-distance pattern among groups and a signal of dispersal at short distances from their natal group based on spatial autocorrelation analyses. In contrast, male genotypes were not correlated with spatial distance, thus suggesting a larger mean dispersal distance for males as compared to females. Both within sex and mixed-sex pairs were on average genetically more related within groups than among groups. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides evidence for an intersexual difference in dispersal distance in the mountain gorilla. Overall, it stresses the importance of investigating spatial genetic structure patterns on a sex-specific basis to better understand the dispersal dynamics of the species under investigation. It is currently poorly understood why some male and female gorillas disperse while others remain in the natal group. Our results on average relatedness within and across groups confirm that groups often contain close relatives. While inbreeding avoidance may play a role in driving female dispersal, we note that more detailed dyadic genetic analyses are needed to shed light on the role of inbreeding avoidance as an ultimate cause of female dispersal in mountain gorillas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Roy
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maryke Gray
- International Gorilla Conservation Program, P.O. Box 931, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Tara Stoinski
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International and Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA
| | - Martha M Robbins
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Linda Vigilant
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103, Leipzig, Germany
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Abstract
One quarter of all mammal species are considered threatened with extinction (IUCN 2007). The rate of loss of biodiversity is accelerating because increasing pressure from an expanding human population is shrinking natural habitat and over-exploiting wild animal populations. Although processes such as habitat loss and over-harvesting are usually identified as the major drivers of extinction, recent evidence suggests that disease can also be a significant threat to endangered species (Lyles and Dobson 1993; Daszak and Cunningham 1999; Daszak et al. 2000b; de Castro and Bolker 2004; Choisy and Rohani 2006; Lips et al. 2006; Smith et al. 2006). Disease has already been documented as a cause of extinction of a land snail (Partula turgida) (Cunningham and Dazsak 1998), and several amphibian species (Schloegel et al. 2006; Skerrat et al. 2007). Diseases are also known to cause significant population declines, as illustrated by the impact of canine distemper virus in black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) (Williams et al. 1988) and lions (Panthera leo) (Roelke-Parker et al. 1996), rabies virus in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1999), Ebola virus in apes (Leroy et al. 2004), squirrelpox virus in red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) (Rushton et al. 2006) and transmissible facial tumour disease in Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) (Pearse and Swift 2006).
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Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL, Harcourt AH, Stewart KJ. The acoustic features of gorilla double grunts and their relation to behavior. Am J Primatol 1994; 33:31-50. [PMID: 31936924 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.1350330104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/1993] [Revised: 11/22/1993] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) give double-grunts to one another in a variety of situations, when feeding, resting, moving, or engaged in other kinds of social behavior. Some double-grunts elicit double-grunts in reply whereas others do not. Double-grunts are individually distinctive, and high-ranking animals give double-grunts at higher rates than others. There was no evidence, however, that the probability of eliciting a reply depended upon either the animals' behavior at the time a call was given or the social relationship between caller and respondent. The probability of eliciting a reply could be predicted from a double-grunt's acoustic features. Gorillas apparently produce at least two acoustically different subtypes of double-grunts, each of which conveys different information. Double-grunts with a low second formant (typically < 1600 Hz) are given by animals after a period of silence and frequently elicit vocal replies. Double-grunts with a high second formant (typically > 1600 Hz) are given by animals within 5 s of a call from another individual and rarely elicit replies. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Seyfarth
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvani
| | - Dorothy L Cheney
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Kelly J Stewart
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, California
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