The safety and efficacy of tacrolimus ointment in pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis

Disorders in Children

Pediatric dermatoses can present at birth or develop over time. When managing dermatology conditions in children, caregiver involvement is important. Patients may have lesions that need to be monitored or need assistance with therapeutic administration. The following section provides a subset of pediatric dermatoses and notable points for presentation in skin of color patients. Providers need to be able to recognize dermatology conditions in patients of varying skin tones and provide therapies that address the condition and any associated pigmentary alterations.

Comparative Efficacy of Targeted Systemic Therapies for Moderate to Severe Atopic Dermatitis without Topical Corticosteroids: Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

The comparative efficacy of targeted systemic therapies for moderate to severe atopic dermatitis (AD) has not been systematically assessed using recent phase 3 data. This network meta-analysis assesses the comparative efficacy of targeted systemic therapies without the addition of topical corticosteroids (TCS) and/or topical calcineurin inhibitors (TCI) in adults with moderate to severe AD.

METHODS

The systematic literature review searched through 17 May 2021 for phase 3/4 trials with upadacitinib, interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-13 (IL-13), or JAK inhibitors compared with placebo or active intervention for adults and adolescents with moderate to severe AD with inadequate response to TCS/TCI or for whom TCS/TCI was medically inadvisable, without restrictions on year or region. Researchers assessed data using PRISMA guidelines. The proportion of patients achieving trial co-primary endpoints [Investigator Global Assessment (IGA) score of 0 or 1 (clear or almost clear) and reduction of ≥ 2 points from baseline; proportion of patients achieving Eczema Area and Severity Index (EASI) improvement ≥ 75% from baseline (EASI-75)]; EASI improvement ≥ 90% from baseline (EASI-90); and ≥ 4-point improvement on Pruritus Numerical Rating Scale from baseline (ΔNRS ≥ 4) were evaluated using Bayesian network meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Of 3415 initially identified records, network meta-analysis (NMA) ultimately included 6 records representing 9 unique studies. Two upadacitinib trials were also included. Eleven clinical trials including 6254 patients were analyzed. Upadacitinib 30 mg daily was the most efficacious therapy across all endpoints at the primary endpoint (week 12 or 16) and at earlier timepoints, followed by upadacitinib 15 mg daily and abrocitinib 200 mg daily.

DISCUSSION

Many factors need to be considered for treatment selection for AD. These findings can help healthcare providers when personalizing a patient's treatment.

CONCLUSION

Upadacitinib 30 mg daily, upadacitinib 15 mg daily, and abrocitinib 200 mg daily may be the most efficacious targeted systemic therapies over 12-16 weeks of therapy in AD.

The Therapeutic Effects of a 0.03% Tacrolimus Ointment on Childhood Phlyctenular Keratitis

Purpose: We explored the therapeutic effects of a 0.03% tacrolimus ointment (Protopic) on steroid-resistant phlyctenular keratitis in children. Methods: We enrolled seven eyes of five children with recurrent phlyctenular keratitis despite 3 months of steroid treatment. The topical steroids were tapered and the patients treated with a combination of 0.03% tacrolimus and 0.3% ofloxacin ointment. The logarithm of minimal angle of resolution (logMAR) visual acuity, corneal neovascularization status, and changes in corneal opacity between the baseline and final visit were checked on anterior photographs using Image J software. Results: The average patient age was 6.8 ± 3.0 years (range, 3-9 years) and the treatment duration 8.0 ± 2.0 days (range, 5-10 days). The baseline logMAR visual acuity was 0.42 ± 0.32 and the final value 0.19 ± 0.22. Visual acuity thus improved significantly after treatment (p = 0.026). Corneal neovascularization and phylctenulosis improved in all seven eyes; the fibrotic corneal opacity decreased in two eyes. Conclusions: Topical 0.03% tacrolimus ointment may usefully treat steroid-resistant phlyctenular keratitis of childhood.

Tacrolimus inhibits oral carcinogenesis through cell cycle control

Tacrolimus (TAC, FK506) is a major calcineurin inhibitor and has been commonly used in treatments of patients with organ transplants and immune diseases. Moreover, tacrolimus is recommended by the treatment guidelines for oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMDs) such as oral lichen planus (OLP). However, whether tacrolimus increases the risk of cancer remains controversial. We observed that in a 4-Nitroquinoline N-oxide (4NQO)-induced oral carcinogenesis model, tacrolimus treatment was associated with a significantly lower ratio of cancer formation (52.94% vs. 90%) and a lower proportion of Ki67 and proliferation cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) -positive cells in lesion areas (P < 0.001). Liver, kidney, and lung functions of rats and the tumor immune microenvironment of the tongue were not affected. These observations suggest that tacrolimus blocked oral carcinogenesis through epithelial cell proliferation inhibition, independent of its immunosuppressive effects. As a processing factor, tacrolimus decreased tumor formation and cell proliferation in different stages of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) progression in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, we investigated effects on the cell cycle and expression of related proteins. Tacrolimus induced G1/S phase arrest and significantly downregulated the expression of cyclinD1, cyclinE1, and c-Myc. These results suggest that tacrolimus induces G1/S phase arrest via inhibition of cyclinD1, cyclinE1, and c-Myc expression and retards oral cell carcinogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Thus, application of tacrolimus is a safe therapeutic strategy for treating OPMDs.

Occlusive treatment enhances efficacy of tacrolimus 0.1% in a pediatric patient with severe alopecia areata: Case report and literature review

Tacrolimus is an immunomodulatory drug, available for topical and systemic treatment of several dermopathies that are characterized by immune dysregulation. In the case of alopecia areata, standard application has proven insufficient to yield satisfactory results. Herein, we present a 6-year-old patient with Down syndrome who was treated with topical tacrolimus 0.1% ointment under occlusion overnight with remarkable clinical improvement within 4 months.

Consensus on the treatment of vitiligo - Brazilian Society of Dermatology

Background

Vitiligo is a muco-cutaneous, autoimmune, localized, or disseminated disease, which manifests through hypochromic or achromic macules, with loss in quality of life. The prevalence of vitiligo in Brazil was determined to be 0.54%. There is no on-label medication for its treatment. To date, no Brazilian consensus on the treatment of vitiligo had been written.

Objectives

The objective of this group of Brazilian dermatologists with experience in the treatment of this disease was to reach a consensus on the clinical and surgical treatment of vitiligo, based on articles with the best scientific evidence.

Methods

Seven dermatologists were invited, and each was assigned two treatment modalities to review. Each treatment (topical, systemic, and phototherapy) was reviewed by three experts. Two experts reviewed the surgical treatment. Subsequently, the coordinator compiled the different versions and drafted a text about each type of treatment. The new version was returned to all experts, who expressed their opinions and made suggestions for clarity. The final text was written by the coordinator and sent to all participants to prepare the final consensus.

Results/Conclusion

The experts defined the following as standard treatments of vitiligo: the use of topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors for localized and unstable cases; corticosteroid minipulse in progressive generalized vitiligo; narrowband UVB phototherapy for extensive forms of the disease. Surgical modalities should be indicated for segmental and stable generalized vitiligo. Topical and systemic anti-JAK drugs are being tested, with promising results.

Systemic treatments for eczema: a network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Eczema is a common and chronic, relapsing, inflammatory skin disorder. It seriously impacts quality of life and economic outcomes, especially for those with moderate to severe eczema. Various treatments allow sustained control of the disease; however, their relative benefit remains unclear due to the limited number of trials directly comparing treatments.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the comparative efficacy and safety of different types of systemic immunosuppressive treatments for moderate to severe eczema using NMA and to generate rankings of available systemic immunosuppressive treatments for eczema according to their efficacy and safety.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases up to August 2019: the Cochrane Skin Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and Embase.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of systemic immunosuppressive agents for moderate to severe atopic eczema when compared against placebo or any other eligible eczema treatment.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We synthesised data using pair-wise analysis and NMA to compare treatments and rank them according to their effectiveness. Effectiveness was assessed primarily by determining the proportion of participants who achieved at least 75% improvement in the Eczema Area and Severity Index (EASI75) and improvement in the Patient-Oriented Eczema Measure (POEM). Safety was evaluated primarily by considering the proportion of participants with serious adverse events (SAEs) and infection. We deemed short-term follow-up as ≤ 16 weeks and long-term follow-up as > 16 weeks. We assessed the certainty of the body of evidence from the NMA for these primary outcomes using six domains of CiNEMA grading.

MAIN RESULTS

We included a total of 74 studies, with 8177 randomised participants. Approximately 55% of participants were male, with average age of 32 years (range 2 to 84 years), although age and gender were unreported for 419 and 902 participants, respectively. Most of the included trials were placebo controlled (65%), 34% were head-to-head studies (15% assessed the effects of different doses of the same drug), and 1% were multi-armed studies with both an active comparator and a placebo. All trials included participants with moderate to severe eczema, but 62% of studies did not separate data by severity; 38% of studies assessed only severe eczema. The total duration of included trials ranged from 2 weeks to 60 months, whereas treatment duration varied from a single dose (CIM331, KPL-716) to 60 months (methotrexate (MTX)). Seventy studies were available for quantitative synthesis; this review assessed 29 immunosuppressive agents from three classes of interventions. These included (1) conventional treatments, with ciclosporin assessed most commonly; (2) small molecule treatments, including phosphodiesterase (PDE)-4 inhibitors, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors; and (3) biological treatments, including anti-CD31 receptors, anti-interleukin (IL)-22, anti-IL-31, anti-IL-13, anti-IL-12/23p40, anti-OX40, anti-TSLP, anti-CRTH2, and anti-immunoglobulin E (IgE) monoclonal antibodies, but most commonly dupilumab. Most trials (73) assessed outcomes at a short-term duration ranging from 2 to 16 weeks, whereas 33 trials assessed long-term outcomes, with duration ranging from 5 to 60 months. All participants were from a hospital setting. Fifty-two studies declared a source of funding, and of these, pharmaceutical companies funded 88%. We rated 37 studies as high risk; 21, unclear risk, and 16, low risk of bias, with studies most commonly at high risk of attrition bias. Network meta-analysis suggests that dupilumab ranks first for effectiveness when compared with other biological treatments. Dupilumab is more effective than placebo in achieving EASI75 (risk ratio (RR) 3.04, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.51 to 3.69) and improvement in POEM score (mean difference 7.30, 95% CI 6.61 to 8.00) at short-term follow-up (high-certainty evidence). Very low-certainty evidence means we are uncertain of the effects of dupilumab when compared with placebo, in terms of the proportion of participants who achieve EASI75 (RR 2.59, 95% CI 1.87 to 3.60) at longer-term follow-up. Low-certainty evidence indicates that tralokinumab may be more effective than placebo in achieving short-term EASI75 (RR 2.54, 95% CI 1.21 to 5.34), but there was no evidence for tralokinumab to allow us to assess short-term follow-up of POEM or long-term follow-up of EASI75. We are uncertain of the effect of ustekinumab compared with placebo in achieving EASI75 (long-term follow-up: RR 1.17, 95% CI 0.40 to 3.45; short-term follow-up: RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.28 to 2.97; both very low certainty). We found no evidence on ustekinumab for the POEM outcome. We are uncertain whether other immunosuppressive agents that targeted our key outcomes influence the achievement of short-term EASI75 compared with placebo due to low- or very low-certainty evidence. Dupilumab and ustekinumab were the only immunosuppressive agents evaluated for longer-term EASI75. Dupilumab was the only agent evaluated for improvement in POEM during short-term follow-up. Low- to moderate-certainty evidence indicates a lower proportion of participants with SAEs after treatment with QAW039 and dupilumab compared to placebo during short-term follow-up, but low- to very low-certainty evidence suggests no difference in SAEs during short-term follow-up of other immunosuppressive agents compared to placebo. Evidence for effects of immunosuppressive agents on risk of any infection during short-term follow-up and SAEs during long-term follow-up compared with placebo was of low or very low certainty but did not indicate a difference. We did not identify differences in other adverse events (AEs), but dupilumab is associated with specific AEs, including eye inflammation and eosinophilia.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that dupilumab is the most effective biological treatment for eczema. Compared to placebo, dupilumab reduces eczema signs and symptoms in the short term for people with moderate to severe atopic eczema. Short-term safety outcomes from clinical trials did not reveal new safety concerns with dupilumab. Overall, evidence for the efficacy of most other immunosuppressive treatments for moderate to severe atopic eczema is of low or very low certainty. Given the lack of data comparing conventional with newer biological treatments for the primary outcomes, there remains high uncertainty for ranking the efficacy and safety of conventional treatments such as ciclosporin and biological treatments such as dupilumab. Most studies were placebo-controlled and assessed only short-term efficacy of immunosuppressive agents. Further adequately powered head-to-head RCTs should evaluate comparative long-term efficacy and safety of available treatments for moderate to severe eczema.

Contemporary Role of Topical Calcineurin Inhibitors: A Pediatric Dermatology Perspective

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the most common pediatric chronic inflammatory skin disease in North America, often involving complex treatment regimens and impairing the quality of life of affected children and their families. Two topical calcineurin inhibitors (TCIs) have been available for the treatment of AD in pediatric patients for more than 15 years, and they continue to represent an important steroid-sparing option for the management of AD. Despite the large body of evidence and extensive clinical experience with these agents, there remain concerns among parents and clinicians regarding the long-term safety of this class of therapy, particularly with respect to the boxed warning about the potential risk of lymphoma and malignancy associated with TCIs. Concerns about burning or stinging with initial applications are also common. This review examines the literature on the clinical effectiveness of TCIs, with a focus on the pivotal research that supports the efficacy of these agents, and the reassuring body of evidence supporting their long-term safety in pediatric patients. Practical recommendations for maximizing the utility of TCIs in pediatric patients, including discussion points to address with parents, are offered.

Topical calcineurin inhibitors for pediatric periorificial dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Data regarding the treatment of periorificial dermatitis with topical calcineurin inhibitors (TCI) in the pediatric population are limited.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the clinical utility of TCI in pediatric patients with periorificial dermatitis.

METHODS

A retrospective medical record review of all pediatric patients with periorificial dermatitis treated with TCIs was performed. Follow-up via telephone was performed to capture missing data.

RESULTS

A total of 132 patients met the inclusion criteria. The median age at diagnosis was 4.2 years (interquartile range, 2.3-8.2). The median follow-up was 5.2 months (interquartile range, 2.1-11.7). Seventy-two patients had evaluable follow-up data. Of these, 48 (67%) patients were treated with TCI alone, 12 (16.7%) were treated with a combination of TCI and topical metronidazole, and 9 (12.5%) were treated with a combination of TCI and a systemic antibiotic. Complete response was noted in 68.8% of patients treated with TCI alone, in 75% of patients treated with TCI and metronidazole, and in 77.8% of patients treated with TCI and a systemic antibiotic. Adverse events were rare and mild in severity.

CONCLUSION

Topical calcineurin inhibitors are an effective therapeutic option for pediatric patients with periorificial dermatitis and were well tolerated in this cohort.

Topical and Oral Therapies for Childhood Atopic Dermatitis and Plaque Psoriasis

Background: Treatment of atopic dermatitis and psoriasis in children is difficult due to lack of standardized treatment guidelines and few FDA-approved treatment options. Treatments approved for adults may be used off-label in pediatric patients. Objective: This review evaluates the topical and oral treatment options available, including off-label uses, and provides a basic therapeutic guideline for pediatric atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. Methods: A PubMed review of topical and systemic treatments for pediatric psoriasis and atopic dermatitis with information regarding age, efficacy, dosing, contra-indications, adverse events, and off-label treatments. Results: The search identified seven topical and five systemic treatments that are routinely employed to treat pediatric atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. Limitations: Standardized guidelines regarding treatment choice, dosing, and long-term safety are scarce. Reviews may be subject to ascertainment bias. Conclusions: Current treatment guidelines are based on clinical experience and expert advice with few treatments officially approved for atopic dermatitis and psoriasis in children.

Adjunctive Management of Itch in Atopic Dermatitis

Itch, or pruritus, is a hallmark feature of atopic dermatitis (AD). The impact of AD-related pruritus can range from mildly distressing or distracting to completely disabling. Traditionally, management of itch in AD patients has focused on restoring the altered skin barrier with topical emollients and/or reducing inflammation. A growing emphasis has been placed on directly targeting the neural transmission pathways that mediate itch signaling. Off-label use of neuromodulatory agents has helped reduce this aggravating symptom in atopic patients. This article reviews the current literature on the use of neuromodulatory agents and nonpharmacologic alternative therapies used to treat AD-related pruritus.

Topical treatment of atopic dermatitis in children: current challenges and answers

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the most prevalent skin disease in the early childhood and is a considerable problem both for patients and members of their families and for the society on the whole. In most cases, AD requires a long-term therapy such as the use of anti-inflammatory drugs. Selective inhibitors of the synthesis and release of proinflammatory cytokines - topical calcineurin inhibitors (Tcis) - are now used to solve this problem, with pimecrolimus being one of them. Pimecrolimus has been thoroughly examined for the past decade in different clinical studies involving a total of over 4,000 infants (below 2 years of age). These studies demonstrated the efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus for AD in children provided it is used in a long-term therapy on an intermittent basis. Unlike topical corticosteroids, the long-term use of pimecrolimus is not associated with any risk of development of systemic immunosuppression, skin atrophy, skin barrier dysfunction or systemic absorption so it is safe even if applied to the most sensitive skin areas. In view of this, the authors make a conclusion that pimecrolimus used in the form of a cream is a safe and efficient drug for the treatment of infants aged over three months suffering from atopic dermatitis.

Topical Therapy in Atopic Dermatitis in Children

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common, chronic childhood skin disorder caused by complex genetic, immunological, and environmental interactions. It significantly impairs quality of life for both child and family. Treatment is complex and must be tailored to the individual taking into account personal, social, and emotional factors, as well as disease severity. This review covers the management of AD in children with topical treatments, focusing on: education and empowerment of patients and caregivers, avoidance of trigger factors, repair and maintenance of the skin barrier by correct use of emollients, control of inflammation with topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors, minimizing infection, and the use of bandages and body suits.

Topical tacrolimus for atopic dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis (AD) (or atopic eczema) is a chronic inflammatory skin condition that affects children and adults and has an important impact on quality of life. Topical corticosteroids (TCS) are the first-line therapy for this condition; however, they can be associated with significant adverse effects when used chronically. Tacrolimus ointment (in its 2 manufactured strengths of 0.1% and 0.03%) might be an alternative treatment. Tacrolimus, together with pimecrolimus, are drugs called topical calcineurin inhibitors (TCIs).

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of topical tacrolimus for moderate and severe atopic dermatitis compared with other active treatments.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases up to 3 June 2015: the Cochrane Skin Group Specialised Register, CENTRAL in the Cochrane Library (Issue 5, 2015), MEDLINE (from 1946), EMBASE (from 1974), LILACS (from 1982), and the Global Resource of Eczema Trials (GREAT database). We searched six trials registers and checked the bibliographies of included studies for further references to relevant trials. We contacted specialists in the field for unpublished data.A separate search for adverse effects of topical tacrolimus was undertaken in MEDLINE and EMBASE on 30 July 2013. We also scrutinised the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) websites for adverse effects information.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of participants with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis (both children and adults) using topical tacrolimus at any dose, course duration, and follow-up time compared with other active treatments.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently screened and examined the full text of selected studies for compliance with eligibility criteria, risk of bias, and data extraction. Our three prespecified primary outcomes were physician's assessment, participant's self-assessment of improvement, and adverse effects. Our secondary outcomes included assessment of improvement of the disease by validated or objective measures, such as SCORAD (SCORing Atopic Dermatitis), the EASI (Eczema Area and Severity Index), and BSA (Body Surface Area) scores.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 20 studies, with 5885 participants. The variability of drug doses, outcomes, and follow-up periods made it difficult to carry out meta-analyses.A single trial showed that tacrolimus 0.1% was better than low-potency TCS by the physician's assessment (risk ratio (RR) 3.09, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.14 to 4.45, 1 study, n = 371, moderate-quality evidence). It was also marginally better than low-potency TCS on face and neck areas and moderate-potency TCS on the trunk and extremities by the physician's assessment (RR 1.32, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.49, 1 study, n = 972, moderate level of evidence) and for some of the secondary outcomes. Compared with pimecrolimus 1%, people treated with tacrolimus were almost twice as likely to improve by the physician's assessment (RR 1.80, 95% CI 1.34 to 2.42, 2 studies, n = 506, moderate quality of evidence). Compared with the lower concentration of 0.03%, the tacrolimus 0.1% formulation reduced the risk of not having an improvement by 18% as evaluated by the physician's assessment (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.72 to 0.92, 6 studies, n = 1640, high-quality evidence). Tacrolimus 0.1% compared with moderate-to-potent TCS showed no difference by the physician's assessment, and 2 secondary outcomes (1 study, 377 participants) and a marginal benefit favouring tacrolimus 0.1% was found by the participant's assessment (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.29, 1 study, n = 974, low quality of evidence) and SCORAD.Based on data from 2 trials, tacrolimus 0.03% was superior to mild TCS for the physician's assessment (RR 2.58, 95% CI 1.96 to 3.38, 2 studies, n = 790, moderate-quality evidence) and the participant's self-assessment (RR 1.64, 95% CI 1.41 to 1.90, 1 study, n = 416, moderate quality of evidence). One trial showed moderate benefit of tacrolimus 0.03% compared with pimecrolimus 1% on the physician's assessment (RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.98, 1 study, n = 139, low-quality evidence), but the effects were equivocal when evaluating BSA. In the comparison of tacrolimus 0.03% with moderate-to-potent corticosteroids, no difference was found in most of the outcomes measured (including physician's and participant's assessment and also for the secondary outcomes), but in two studies, a marginal benefit favouring the corticosteroid group was found for the EASI and BSA scores.Burning was more frequent in those using calcineurin inhibitors than those using corticosteroid tacrolimus 0.03% (RR 2.48, 95% CI 1.96 to 3.14, 5 studies, 1883 participants, high-quality evidence), but no difference was found for skin infections. Symptoms observed were mild and transient. The comparison between the two calcineurin inhibitors (pimecrolimus and tacrolimus) showed the same overall incidence of adverse events, but with a small difference in the frequency of local effects.Serious adverse events were rare; occurred in both the tacrolimus and corticosteroid groups; and in most cases, were considered to be unrelated to the treatment. No cases of lymphoma were noted in the included studies nor in the non-comparative studies. Cases were only noted in spontaneous reports, cohorts, and case-control studies. Systemic absorption was rarely detectable, only in low levels, and this decreased with time. Exception is made for diseases with severe barrier defects, such as Netherton's syndrome, lamellar ichthyosis, and a few others, with case reports of a higher absorption. We evaluated clinical trials; case reports; and in vivo, in vitro, and animal studies; and didn't find any evidence that topical tacrolimus could cause skin atrophy.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Tacrolimus 0.1% was better than low-potency corticosteroids, pimecrolimus 1%, and tacrolimus 0.03%. Results were equivocal when comparing both dose formulations to moderate-to-potent corticosteroids. Tacrolimus 0.03% was superior to mild corticosteroids and pimecrolimus. Both tacrolimus formulations seemed to be safe, and no evidence was found to support the possible increased risk of malignancies or skin atrophy with their use. The reliability and strength of the evidence was limited by the lack of data; thus, findings of this review should be interpreted with caution. We did not evaluate costs.

Pimecrolimus in atopic dermatitis: consensus on safety and the need to allow use in infants

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a distressing dermatological disease, which is highly prevalent during infancy, can persist into later life and requires long-term management with anti-inflammatory compounds. The introduction of the topical calcineurin inhibitors (TCIs), tacrolimus and pimecrolimus, more than 10 yr ago was a major breakthrough for the topical anti-inflammatory treatment of AD. Pimecrolimus 1% is approved for second-line use in children (≥2 yr old) and adults with mild-to-moderate AD. The age restriction was emphasized in a boxed warning added by the FDA in January 2006, which also highlights the lack of long-term safety data and the theoretical risk of skin malignancy and lymphoma. Since then, pimecrolimus has been extensively investigated in short- and long-term studies including over 4000 infants (<2 yr old). These studies showed that pimecrolimus effectively treats AD in infants, with sustained improvement with long-term intermittent use. Unlike topical corticosteroids, long-term TCI use does not carry the risks of skin atrophy, impaired epidermal barrier function or enhanced percutaneous absorption, and so is suitable for AD treatment especially in sensitive skin areas. Most importantly, the studies of pimecrolimus in infants provided no evidence for systemic immunosuppression, and a comprehensive body of evidence from clinical studies, post-marketing surveillance and epidemiological investigations does not support potential safety concerns. In conclusion, the authors consider that the labelling restrictions regarding the use of pimecrolimus in infants are no longer justified and recommend that the validity of the boxed warning for TCIs should be reconsidered.

Current topical and systemic therapies for itch

Itch is a common distressing symptom which may be caused by multifactorial aetiologies including inflammatory skin diseases, systemic diseases, neuropathic conditions and psychogenic disorders. Itch is a term used synonymously with pruritus and is defined as acute if it lasts less than 6 weeks or chronic if it persists for more than 6 weeks. It can have the same impact on the quality of life as chronic pain and shares many of the same pathophysiological pathways. Depending on the aetiology of the itch, different pathogenic mechanisms have been postulated with a number of mediators identified. These include histamine, leukotrienes, proteases, neuropeptides, cytokines and opioids, which may activate peripheral itch-mediating C-fibres via receptors on the nerve terminals and central neuronal pathways. Therefore, there is no single universally effective anti-itch treatment available. First-line treatments for itch include topical therapies, such as emollients, mild cleansers (low pH), topical anaesthetics, steroids, calcineurin inhibitors and coolants (menthol). Treatment with systemic therapies can vary according to the aetiology of the chronic itch. Non-sedating antihistamines are helpful in conditions such as urticaria where the itch is primarily histamine mediated. Although the itch of eczema is not mediated by histamine, sedating antihistamines at night are helpful to break the itch-scratch cycle. Chronic itch may also be treated with other systemic therapies, such as anticonvulsants, antidepressants as well as mu-opioid antagonists, kappa-opioid agonists and phototherapy, depending on the cause of the itch. This article summarises the topical and systemic therapies available with our current understanding of the pathophysiology of itch.

Effective use of transdermal drug delivery in children

Transdermal administration offers a non-invasive and convenient method for paediatric drug delivery. The competent skin barrier function in term infants and older children limits both water loss and the percutaneous entry of chemicals including drugs; but the smaller doses required by children eases the attainment of therapeutic concentrations. Transdermal patches used in paediatrics include fentanyl, buprenorphine, clonidine, scopolamine, methylphenidate, oestrogens, nicotine and tulobuterol. Some patches have paediatric labelling supported by clinical trials whereas others are used unlicensed. Innovative drug delivery methods, such as microneedles and sonophoresis are being tested for their safety and efficacy; needleless injectors are primarily used to administer growth hormone; and two iontophoretic devices were approved for paediatrics. In contrast, the immature and rapidly evolving skin barrier function in premature neonates represents a significant formulation challenge. Unfortunately, this population group suffers from an absence of approved transdermal formulations, a shortcoming exacerbated by the significant risk of excessive drug exposure via the incompletely formed skin barrier.

Abordagem da dermatite atópica na infância pelo Médico de Família e Comunidade

Dermatite atópica (DA) é uma inflamação crônica e pruriginosa da pele, que acomete crianças nos primeiros anos de vida. Sua etiologia permanece pouco elucidada, mas sabe-se que ocorre uma disfunção da barreira cutânea que facilita a penetração de alérgenos/irritantes na epiderme, provocando reação inflamatória com predomínio de resposta Th2 em relação a Th1. O diagnóstico é clínico, podendo associar-se com a presença de história familiar e pregressa de atopias, como rinite e asma. A DA manifesta-se por meio de lesões eczematosas, pruriginosas, com presença de eritema, pápulas, vesículas e escamas. Os principais diagnósticos diferenciais são dermatite seborreica, dermatite de contato, psoríase e escabiose. O tratamento baseia-se na educação do paciente e de seus familiares, somado ao controle do prurido com anti-histamínicos e da inflamação com corticoides e inibidores da calcineurina. Devido à alta prevalência e impacto da DA na qualidade de vida de crianças, corrobora-se a importância do diagnóstico precoce e de uma abordagem individualizada.

CSACI position statement: safety of topical calcineurin inhibitors in the management of atopic dermatitis in children and adults

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a condition frequently encountered in medical practices across the country. Arming ourselves with appropriate and safe treatment modalities to provide relief for this chronic and relapsing inflammatory condition is of utmost importance to our patients and their families. Utilizing topical calcineurin inhibitors (TCIs) for the treatment of AD not responsive to high-potency corticosteroids, or low-potency corticosteroids and localized to the face, eyelids, and skin folds of patients >2 years, is reasonable to include in common practice. Despite the FDA’s Black Box warning, to date no evidence has been published linking the TCIs to an increased incidence of malignancy in either children or adults that establishes causation. The Canadian Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (CSACI) therefore recognizes that the benefits of TCIs should be carefully weighed with the theoretical risks in advising patients, and acknowledges that long-term studies remain in progress. The safety and efficacy of topical tacrolimus and pimecrolimus should therefore be considered when treating children and adults with AD in Canadian allergy and immunology practices.

Topical corticosteroids and hospital length of stay in children with eczema herpeticum

There is concern that the use of topical corticosteroids in patients with eczema herpeticum may facilitate dissemination of herpes simplex virus and worsen disease. Our primary aim therefore was to determine whether topical corticosteroid use in children hospitalized with eczema herpeticum is associated with longer hospital length of stay (LOS). We performed a multicenter retrospective cohort study of 1,331 children ages 2 months to 17 years admitted with a diagnosis of eczema herpeticum between January 1, 2001, and March 31, 2010, to 42 tertiary care children's hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System database. Multivariable linear regression models determined the association between receipt of topical corticosteroid therapy on the first day of hospitalization and the main outcome measure: LOS. Receipt of topical corticosteroid therapy on day 1 of hospitalization was not associated with a longer LOS on unadjusted or multivariable analysis (p = 0.75). Receipt of topical calcineurin inhibitors during the hospitalization was also not associated with a longer LOS (p = 0.12). Receipt of systemic corticosteroids was associated with an 18% adjusted longer LOS (95% confidence interval 2%-36%; p = 0.03). Further study is needed to identify which children with eczema herpeticum may benefit from topical corticosteroids, but their use during active infection is not associated with poorer outcomes, although the use of systemic corticosteroids was associated with a longer LOS and should be avoided in patients with eczema herpeticum pending future prospective study.

Topical therapies for pruritus

Itch, or pruritus, is the predominant symptom associated with acute and chronic cutaneous disease, and in some cases may be debilitating. To date, there is no single universally effective anti-itch treatment. Because the pathophysiology of itch in most cutaneous or systemic disorders remains unclear, antipruritic therapy is often directed against a variety of targets, including the epidermal barrier, immune system, or the nervous system. Topical therapy is the mainstay of dermatologic management of acute or localized itch or in patients with contraindications to systemic therapies. This review will summarize current topical therapies to treat pruritus and discuss potential future therapies.

Vitiligo: a comprehensive overview Part II: treatment options and approach to treatment

Vitiligo is a common skin disorder that results in depigmentation. With the appropriate management, many patients can minimize disease progression, attain repigmentation, and achieve cosmetically pleasing results. There are numerous medical and surgical treatments aimed at repigmentation; therapies for depigmentation are available for patients with recalcitrant or advanced disease. The use of cosmetics at all stages of treatment may be vital to the patient's quality of life. Understanding all the available options helps choose the appropriate treatment plan and tailor it to your patient. Part II of this two-part series on vitiligo discusses the indications for, evidence behind, and adverse effects associated with many of the therapies used for vitiligo. Both conventional medical and surgical options are discussed in addition to several alternative and promising new therapies.

Topical calcineurin inhibitors in the treatment of atopic dermatitis - an update on safety issues

Atopic dermatitis is a common chronic skin disorder whose management is complex. Topical corticosteroids have been the mainstay of atopic dermatitis treatment for more than 50 years but have multiple side effects. Topical calcineurin inhibitors including tacrolimus and pimecrolimus are safe and efficacious in atopic dermatitis. In 2005 the FDA issued "black box" warnings for pimecrolimus cream and tacrolimus ointment because of potential safety risks, including skin cancers and lymphomas. However, these concerns are not supported by current data. Topical calcineurin inhibitors are particularly indicated for treating patients with atopic dermatitis in whom topical corticosteroid therapy cannot be employed or may cause irreversible side effects. They can be used advantageously in problem zones. A novel regimen of proactive treatment has been shown to prevent, delay and reduce exacerbations of atopic dermatitis. Therapy with topical calcineurin inhibitors should be managed by an experienced specialist and each patient should receive proper education on how to use them and what possible unwanted effects may be expected.

New therapies in pediatric dermatology

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There have been many new developments in therapeutic modalities for the treatment of pediatric dermatological diseases in the past year. Advances in the treatment of atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, infantile hemangiomas and dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa will be discussed. The following review will update the reader on these exciting new possibilities for patient care and future directions for research to improve the lives of children suffering from skin diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

This review will discuss recent articles describing the use of topical tacrolimus for maintenance of remission in atopic dermatitis, utility of nurse educators in atopic dermatitis, safety and efficacy of etanercept for the treatment of psoriasis in children, narrow band ultraviolet B phototherapy for atopic dermatitis and psoriasis, use of topical timolol for infantile hemangiomas and bone marrow transplantation for dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa.

SUMMARY

There are many new interesting, potentially useful therapeutic modalities emerging in pediatric dermatology. New treatments for atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, infantile hemangiomas and dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa are reviewed.

[What's new in paediatric dermatology?]

This paper summarizes a review of the medical literature focused on the field of pediatric dermatology from December 2009 to November 2010. Our objective was to select the papers published in the main journals of dermatology, internal medicine, pediatrics, infectious diseases and allergy that bring new information and significant advances concerning skin diseases in children. Recent advances in the field of infantile hemangiomas and atopic dermatitis are particularly detailed. This review also covers the main the following topics: psoriasis, Kawasaki disease, head lice and warts management, lichen, rare diseases such as epidermolyses bullosae.