Tissue plasminogen activator does not alter development of acquired epilepsy

Development and validation of an interpretable machine learning model for predicting post-stroke epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy is a serious complication after an ischemic stroke. Although two studies have developed prediction model for post-stroke epilepsy (PSE), their accuracy remains insufficient, and their applicability to different populations is uncertain. With the rapid advancement of computer technology, machine learning (ML) offers new opportunities for creating more accurate prediction models. However, the potential of ML in predicting PSE is still not well understood. The purpose of this study was to develop prediction models for PSE among ischemic stroke patients.

METHODS

Patients with ischemic stroke from two stroke centers were included in this retrospective cohort study. At the baseline level, 33 input variables were considered candidate features. The 2-year PSE prediction models in the derivation cohort were built using six ML algorithms. The predictive performance of these machine learning models required further appraisal and comparison with the reference model using the conventional triage classification information. The Shapley additive explanation (SHAP), based on fair profit allocation among many stakeholders according to their contributions, is used to interpret the predicted outcomes of the naive Bayes (NB) model.

RESULTS

A total of 1977 patients were included to build the predictive model for PSE. The Boruta method identified NIHSS score, hospital length of stay, D-dimer level, and cortical involvement as the optimal features, with the receiver operating characteristic curves ranging from 0.709 to 0.849. An additional 870 patients were used to validate the ML and reference models. The NB model achieved the best performance among the PSE prediction models with an area under the receiver operating curve of 0.757. At the 20 % absolute risk threshold, the NB model also provided a sensitivity of 0.739 and a specificity of 0.720. The reference model had poor sensitivities of only 0.15 despite achieving a helpful AUC of 0.732. Furthermore, the SHAP method analysis demonstrated that a higher NIHSS score, longer hospital length of stay, higher D-dimer level, and cortical involvement were positive predictors of epilepsy after ischemic stroke.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study confirmed the feasibility of applying the ML method to use easy-to-obtain variables for accurate prediction of PSE and provided improved strategies and effective resource allocation for high-risk patients. In addition, the SHAP method could improve model transparency and make it easier for clinicians to grasp the prediction model's reliability.

The functional and molecular roles of p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) in epilepsy

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder manifested by recurring unprovoked seizures resulting from an imbalance in the inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain. The process of epileptogenesis involves a complex interplay between the reduction of inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and the enhancement of excitatory glutamate. Pro-BDNF/p75NTR expression is augmented in both glial cells and neurons following epileptic seizures and status epileptics (SE). Over-expression of p75NTR is linked with the pathogenesis of epilepsy, and augmentation of pro-BDNF/p75NTR is implicated in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. However, the precise mechanistic function of p75NTR in epilepsy has not been completely elucidated. Therefore, this review aimed to revise the mechanistic pathway of p75NTR in epilepsy.

Current and Emerging Endovascular and Neurocritical Care Management Strategies in Large-Core Ischemic Stroke

The volume of infarcted tissue in patients with ischemic stroke is consistently associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Initial studies of endovascular thrombectomy for large-vessel occlusion excluded patients with established large-core infarcts, even when large volumes of salvageable brain tissue were present, due to the high risk of hemorrhagic transformation and reperfusion injury. However, recent retrospective and prospective studies have shown improved outcomes with endovascular thrombectomy, and several clinical trials were recently published to evaluate the efficacy of endovascular management of patients presenting with large-core infarcts. With or without thrombectomy, patients with large-core infarcts remain at high risk of in-hospital complications such as hemorrhagic transformation, malignant cerebral edema, seizures, and others. Expert neurocritical care management is necessary to optimize blood pressure control, mitigate secondary brain injury, manage cerebral edema and elevated intracranial pressure, and implement various neuroprotective measures. Herein, we present an overview of the current and emerging evidence pertaining to endovascular treatment for large-core infarcts, recent advances in neurocritical care strategies, and their impact on optimizing patient outcomes.

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP1) in the glial lineage modulates neuronal excitability

The low-density lipoprotein related protein receptor 1 (LRP1), also known as CD91 or α-Macroglobulin-receptor, is a transmembrane receptor that interacts with more than 40 known ligands. It plays an important biological role as receptor of morphogens, extracellular matrix molecules, cytokines, proteases, protease inhibitors and pathogens. In the CNS, it has primarily been studied as a receptor and clearance agent of pathogenic factors such as Aβ-peptide and, lately, Tau protein that is relevant for tissue homeostasis and protection against neurodegenerative processes. Recently, it was found that LRP1 expresses the Lewis-X (Lex) carbohydrate motif and is expressed in the neural stem cell compartment. The removal of Lrp1 from the cortical radial glia compartment generates a strong phenotype with severe motor deficits, seizures and a reduced life span. The present review discusses approaches that have been taken to address the neurodevelopmental significance of LRP1 by creating novel, lineage-specific constitutive or conditional knockout mouse lines. Deficits in the stem cell compartment may be at the root of severe CNS pathologies.

Effect of Reperfusion Therapies on Incidence of Early Post-Stroke Seizures

Objective: This study aimed to determine the effect of reperfusion therapies on the occurrence of early post-stroke seizures (PSS) in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Background: Reperfusion therapies are paramount to the treatment of stroke in the acute phase. However, their effect on the incidence of early seizures after an AIS remains unclear. Design and Methods: The stroke database at Hamad Medical Corporation was used to identify all patients who received reperfusion therapies for AIS from 2016 to 2019. They were matched with patients of similar diagnosis, gender, age, and stroke severity as measured by National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) who did not receive such treatment. The rates of early PSS were calculated for each group. Results: The results showed that 508 patients received reperfusion therapies (342 had IV thrombolysis only, 70 had thrombectomies only, and 96 had received both), compared with 501 matched patients receiving standard stroke unit care. Patients who received reperfusion therapies were similar to their matched controls for mean admission NIHSS score (9.87 vs. 9.79; p = 0.831), mean age (53.3 vs. 53.2 years; p = 0.849), and gender distribution (85 vs. 86% men; p = 0.655). The group receiving reperfusion therapies was found to have increased stroke cortical involvement (62 vs. 49.3%, p < 0.001) and hemorrhagic transformation rates (33.5 vs. 18.6%, p < 0.001) compared with the control group. The rate of early PSS was significantly lower in patients who received reperfusion therapies compared with those who did not (3.1 vs. 5.8%, respectively; p = 0.042). When we excluded seizures occurring at stroke onset prior to any potential treatment implementation, the difference in early PSS rates between the two groups was no longer significant (2.6 vs. 3.9%, respectively; p = 0.251). There was no significant difference in early PSS rate based on the type of reperfusion therapy either (3.2% with thrombolysis, 2.9% with thrombectomy, and 3.1% for the combined treatment, p = 0.309). Conclusions: Treatment of AIS with either thrombectomy, thrombolysis, or both does not increase the risk of early PSS.

Seizures and epilepsy in patients with ischaemic stroke

BACKGROUND

With the increased efficacy of stroke treatments, diagnosis and specific treatment needs of patients with post-stroke seizures (PSS) and post-stroke epilepsy have become increasingly important. PSS can complicate the diagnosis of a stroke and the treatment of stroke patients, and can worsen post-stroke morbidity. This narrative review considers current treatment guidelines, the specifics of antiseizure treatment in stroke patients as well as the state-of-the-art in clinical and imaging research of post-stroke epilepsy. Treatment of PSS needs to consider indications for antiseizure medication treatment as well as individual clinical and social factors. Furthermore, potential interactions between stroke and antiseizure treatments must be carefully considered. The relationship between acute recanalizing stroke therapy (intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy) and the emergence of PSS is currently the subject of an intensive discussion. In the subacute and chronic post-stroke phases, important specific interactions between necessary antiseizure and stroke treatments (anticoagulation, cardiac medication) need to be considered. Among all forms of prevention, primary prevention is currently the most intensively researched. This includes specifically the repurposing of drugs that were not originally developed for antiseizure properties, such as statins. PSS are presently the subject of extensive basic clinical research. Of specific interest are the role of post-stroke excitotoxicity and blood-brain barrier disruption for the emergence of PSS in the acute symptomatic as well as late (> 1 week after the stroke) periods. Current magnetic resonance imaging research focussing on glutamate excitotoxicity as well as diffusion-based estimation of blood-brain barrier integrity aim to elucidate the pathophysiology of seizures after stroke and the principles of epileptogenesis in structural epilepsy in general. These approaches may also reveal new imaging-based biomarkers for prediction of PSS and post-stroke epilepsy.

CONCLUSION

PSS require the performance of individual risk assessments, accounting for the potential effectiveness and side effects of antiseizure therapy. The use of intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy is not associated with an increased risk of PSS. Advances in stroke imaging may reveal biomarkers for PSS.

Impact of drug treatment and drug interactions in post-stroke epilepsy

Stroke is a huge burden on our society and this is expected to grow in the future due to the aging population and the associated co-morbidities. The improvement of acute stroke care has increased the survival rate of stroke patients, and many patients are left with permanent disability, which makes stroke the main cause of adult disability. Unfortunately, many patients face other severe complications such as post-stroke seizures and epilepsy. Acute seizures (ASS) occur within 1 week after the stroke while later occurring unprovoked seizures are diagnosed as post-stroke epilepsy (PSE). Both are associated with a poor prognosis of a functional recovery. The underlying neurobiological mechanisms are complex and poorly understood. There are no universal guidelines on the management of PSE. There is increasing evidence for several risk factors for ASS/PSE, however, the impacts of recanalization, drugs used for secondary prevention of stroke, treatment of stroke co-morbidities and antiseizure medication are currently poorly understood. This review focuses on the common medications that stroke patients are prescribed and potential drug interactions possibly complicating the management of ASS/PSE.

Seizures after Ischemic Stroke: A Matched Multicenter Study

Objective

The purpose of this study was to identify risk factors for acute symptomatic seizures and post‐stroke epilepsy after acute ischemic stroke and evaluate the effects of reperfusion treatment.

Methods

We assessed the risk factors for post‐stroke seizures using logistic or Cox regression in a multicenter study, including adults from 8 European referral centers with neuroimaging‐confirmed ischemic stroke. We compared the risk of post‐stroke seizures between participants with or without reperfusion treatment following propensity score matching to reduce confounding due to treatment selection.

Results

In the overall cohort of 4,229 participants (mean age 71 years, 57% men), a higher risk of acute symptomatic seizures was observed in those with more severe strokes, infarcts located in the posterior cerebral artery territory, and strokes caused by large‐artery atherosclerosis. Strokes caused by small‐vessel occlusion carried a small risk of acute symptomatic seizures. 6% developed post‐stroke epilepsy. Risk factors for post‐stroke epilepsy were acute symptomatic seizures, more severe strokes, infarcts involving the cerebral cortex, and strokes caused by large‐artery atherosclerosis. Electroencephalography findings within 7 days of stroke onset were not independently associated with the risk of post‐stroke epilepsy. There was no association between reperfusion treatments in general or only intravenous thrombolysis or mechanical thrombectomy with the time to post‐stroke epilepsy or the risk of acute symptomatic seizures.

Interpretation

Post‐stroke seizures are related to stroke severity, etiology, and location, whereas an early electroencephalogram was not predictive of epilepsy. We did not find an association of reperfusion treatment with risks of acute symptomatic seizures or post‐stroke epilepsy. ANN NEUROL 2021;90:808–820

Development and validation of a clinical score to predict late seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage in Chinese

BACKGROUND

Seizures are a frequent complication after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). The CAVE score was developed in Europeans to predict late seizures after ICH. Given the higher incidence of ICH in Asians, we aimed to develop and validate a clinical scoring tool for predicting post-ICH late seizures in Chinese.

METHODS

We retrospectively included patients admitted with ICH to a major stroke center in Shandong province, China, in the derivation cohort, who were followed up for occurrence of late seizures (more than seven days after ICH). We applied Cox regression model to identify significant clinical factors which were used to derive a predictive scoring model. The performance of this model was compared with CAVE, and validated in a separate cohort of patients with ICH admitted to another stroke center.

RESULTS

In the derivation cohort (n = 602; median age 65 years; 57 % male；median follow up 24 months), 47 (7.8 %) patients had late seizures during follow up. Four significant risk factors were identified and selected to derive the LANE score (Lobar hemorrhage, Age <65 years, NIHSS score ≥15, Early seizures). The total possible points ranged from 0 to 6, corresponding to positive predictive values of 10.1%-100%, and negative predictive values of 96.8%-92.2%, respectively. The c-statistics of the LANE score in the derivation cohort and validation cohort (n = 521) were 0.83 and 0.78, respectively, while those of the CAVE score were 0.81 and 0.74, respectively.

CONCLUSION

We have developed and validated a clinical scoring tool for predicting late seizures after ICH in Chinese. This tool may be used to identify high risk patients for closer monitoring and clinical trials of therapies to prevent post-ICH epilepsy in the future.

Multifactorial Predictors of Late Epileptic Seizures Related to Stroke: Evaluation of the Current Possibilities of Stratification Based on Existing Prognostic Models-A Comprehensive Review

Background: Epilepsy associated with strokes is a significant clinical and public health problem and has a negative impact on prognosis and clinical outcome. A late epileptic seizure occurring seven days after stroke is actually equated with poststroke epilepsy due to the high risk of recurrence. Predictive models evaluated in the acute phase of stroke would allow for the stratification and early selection of patients at higher risk of developing late seizures. Methods: The most relevant papers in this field were reviewed to establish multifactorial predictors of late seizures and attempt to standardize and unify them into a common prognostic model. Results: Clinical and radiological factors have become the most valuable and reproducible predictors in many reports, while data on electroencephalographic, genetic, and blood biomarkers were limited. The existing prognostic models, CAVE and SeLECT, based on relevant, readily available, and routinely assessed predictors, should be validated and improved in multicenter studies for widespread use in stroke units. Conclusions: Due to contradictory reports, a common and reliable model covering all factors is currently not available. Further research might refine forecasting models by incorporating advanced radiological neuroimaging or quantitative electroencephalographic analysis.

Incidence and Association of Reperfusion Therapies With Poststroke Seizures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the incidence and risk of seizures following acute stroke reperfusion therapy (intravenous thrombolysis [IVT] with r-tPA [recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator], mechanical thrombectomy or both).

METHODS

We searched major databases (MEDLINE, SCOPUS, and Cochrane Library) for articles published between 1995 and October 28, 2019. The primary outcome was the overall and treatment specific pooled incidence of poststroke seizures (PSS) following acute reperfusion therapy. We also computed the pooled incidence of early poststroke seizures and late poststroke seizures separately for all studies. We derived the risk of PSS associated with IVT in the pooled cohort of patients who received only IVT. The small number of studies (<3) that reported on the risk of PSS associated with mechanical thrombectomy alone or in combination with IVT did not allow us to compute an estimate of the risk of seizures associated with this therapy.

RESULTS

We identified 13 753 patients with stroke, of which 592 had seizures. The pooled incidence of PSS was 5.9 % (95% CI, 4.2%-8.2%). PSS incidence rates among patients with stroke treated with IVT, mechanical thrombectomy, and both were respectively 6.1% (95% CI, 3.6%-10.2%), 5.9% (95% CI, 4.1%-8.4%), and 5.8 % (95% CI, 3.0%-10.9%). The incidence of late PSS was 6.7% (95% CI, 4.01%-11.02%) and that of early PSS was 3.14% (95% CI, 2.05%-4.76%). The pooled odds ratio for the association between IVT and PSS was 1.24 (95% CI, 0.75-2.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that about one in 15 ischemic stroke patients treated with IVT, mechanical thrombectomy, or both develop seizures independently of the specific reperfusion treatment that they received.

Early poststroke seizures following thrombolysis and/or thrombectomy for acute stroke: Clinical and stroke characteristics

In this retrospective study, we explored the clinical and stroke characteristics of patients treated with thrombolysis and/or mechanical thrombectomy for an acute stroke and experiencing early poststroke seizures within 7 days of the cerebrovascular accident. Patients with prior epilepsy, primary intracerebral hemorrhage or transient ischemic attacks, or taking antiepileptic drugs were excluded. We retrospectively identified 32 patients admitted between 2010 and 2016 (mean age 75 years; range: 49-90; 14 females and 18 males). A cortical stroke was found in more than 70% of patients. Most epileptic seizures were focal aware (46.7%) or generalized convulsive (43.3%). The median time between stroke onset and seizure occurrence was 2 days; in 75.9% of the cases, seizures occurred within the first 3 days. This retrospective case series is the largest published so far providing details on clinical features of patients with early poststroke seizures following different reperfusion therapies, not only restricted to intravenous (i.v.) thrombolysis. Early poststroke seizures following reperfusion therapies are associated with cortical stroke involvement, are usually focal without impairment of awareness or generalized convulsive, and occur mostly within the first 3 days. Further studies are needed to clarify whether the low prevalence of focal impaired awareness seizures (and nonconvulsive seizures/status) is real or reflects the failure to recognize and correctly diagnose this seizure type in the acute poststroke period (risk of underascertainment due to the lack of systematic video-electroencephalogram (EEG) recording in patients with stroke and difficulties in recognizing these seizures). This article is part of the Special Issue "Seizures & Stroke".

Reperfusion therapies and poststroke seizures

Seizures are not only a frequent complication of stroke but have been associated with an unfavorable functional and vital outcome of patients who have had stroke. Facing a new paradigm of acute standard stroke care, acute symptomatic seizures in this clinical setting deserve to be rethought. Reperfusion therapies, the gold standard treatment for acute ischemic stroke, improve long-term survival and outcome of patients who have had stroke and have been associated both with clinical seizures and the occurrence of epileptiform activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG). This narrative review describes the different physiopathological mechanisms underlying the possible association between reperfusion therapies and seizures, both acute symptomatic seizures and unprovoked seizures, and the current evidence regarding the risk of poststroke seizures in treated patients. It also identifies the gaps in our knowledge to foster future studies in this field. By different mechanisms, reperfusions therapies may have opposing effects on the risk of poststroke seizures. There is a need for a better definition of the specific physiopathology of seizures in clinical practice, as many factors can be recognized. Additionally, most of the current clinical evidence refers to acute symptomatic seizures and not to unprovoked seizures or poststroke epilepsy, and our analysis does not support the existence of a strong association between thrombolysis and poststroke seizures. So far, the impact of reperfusion therapies on the frequency of poststroke seizures is unclear. To study this effect, many clinical challenges must be overcome, including a better and clear operational definition of seizures and stroke characteristics, the standard of stroke and epilepsy care and EEG monitoring, and the degree of reperfusion success. Prospective, high quality, larger, and longer follow-up multicentric studies are urgently needed. Additionally, stroke registries can also prove useful in better elucidate whether there is an association between reperfusion therapies and seizures. This article is part of the Special Issue "Seizures & Stroke".

Incidence of early poststroke seizures during reperfusion therapies in patients with acute ischemic stroke: An observational prospective study: (TESI study: "Trombolisi/Trombectomia e crisi Epilettiche precoci nello Stroke Ischemico")

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to prospectively investigate the occurrence of early poststroke seizures (within 7 days of stroke) in patients undergoing reperfusion therapies (intravenous rtPA [recombinant tissue plasminogen activator] and/or endovascular thrombectomy) in comparison to those not undergoing these procedures.

METHODS

Patients aged ≥18 years with acute ischemic stroke admitted in five Italian centers were prospectively recruited. Clinical data, details on stroke type and etiology, stroke treatment, and radiological data were collected. The frequency of early poststroke seizures was assessed, and predictive factors for their occurrence were evaluated.

RESULTS

Five hundred and sixteen patients (262 in the reperfusion therapies group) were included. Stroke severity on admission and at discharge was higher among patients undergoing reperfusion therapies. Ten patients (3.8%) undergoing reperfusion therapies and 6 (2.3%) of those not receiving these treatments experienced early poststroke seizures (p = 0.45). There were no differences in any of the baseline characteristics between patients experiencing and those not experiencing early seizures.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of early poststroke seizures was overall rare, and no significant differences emerged between patients receiving and those not receiving reperfusion therapies. This article is part of the Special Issue "Seizures and Stroke".

Intravenous thrombolysis with tPA and cortical involvement increase the risk of early poststroke seizures: Results of a case-control study

The aim of this study was to identify the risk factors for early poststroke seizures (PSS) in patients with acute ischemic stroke. We undertook a case-control study at a single stroke center. Patients with seizure occurring during the first 7 days following ischemic stroke admitted between 2010 and 2016 were retrospectively identified and matched with controls (patients with stroke without early PSS) for age and sex. We included 79 cases and 158 controls. Blood sugar levels on admission, stroke localization, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) and Rankin score, and intravenous (i.v.) thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) were statistically associated with early PSS in univariate analysis. Multiple logistic regression after forward and backward variable selection identified cortical stroke localization (odds ratio (OR): 2.49; 95% confidence intervals (CI): 1.35 to 4.59; p = 0.003) and i.v. thrombolysis (OR: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.16 to 4.43; p = 0.008) as variables independently associated with early PSS. Cortical involvement and i.v. thrombolysis are independent risk factors associated with the occurrence of early PSS. This association is not explained by age or sex, concomitant drugs, diabetes or alcoholism, sodium and cholesterol levels, blood pressure on admission, stroke etiology or severity, and hemorrhage following i.v. thrombolysis. Further studies are required to fully elucidate the association between different reperfusion therapies and early PSS. This article is part of the Special Issue "Seizures & Stroke".

Younger age at stroke onset but not thrombolytic treatment predicts poststroke epilepsy: An updated meta-analysis

AIMS

Stroke is the most commonly identified cause of late-onset epilepsy. Risk factors for poststroke epilepsy (PSE) are partially elucidated, and many studies have been performed in recent years. We aimed to update our previous systematic review and meta-analysis on risk factors for PSE.

METHODS

PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases were searched. Articles published in English (1987-2019) were included. Odds ratios (OR) and mean values were calculated for examined variables.

RESULTS

Thirty studies with different designs were included, enrolling 26,045 patients who experienced stroke, of whom 1800 had PSE, corresponding to a prevalence of 7%. Cortical lesions (OR: 3.58, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.35-5.46, p < 0.001), hemorrhagic component (OR: 2.47, 95% CI: 1.68-3.64, p < 0.001), early seizures (ES) (OR: 4.88, 95% CI: 3.08-7.72, p < 0.001), and younger age at stroke onset (difference in means: 2.97 years, 95% CI: 0.78 to 5.16, p = 0.008) favor PSE. Sex and acute treatment with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) do not predict the occurrence of PSE.

CONCLUSION

Despite limitations due to the uneven quality and design of the studies, the present meta-analysis confirms that cortical involvement, hemorrhagic component, and ES are associated with a higher risk of PSE. In this update, younger age at stroke onset but not thrombolytic treatment seems to increase the risk for PSE. This article is part of the Special Issue "Seizures & Stroke".

Modeling poststroke epilepsy and preclinical development of drugs for poststroke epilepsy

Stroke is a severe clinical issue for global public health, representing the third leading cause of death and a major cause of disability in developed countries. Progresses in the pharmacological treatment of the acute stroke have given rise to a significant decrease in its mortality rate. However, as a result, there has been an increasing number of stroke survivors living with disability worldwide. Poststroke epilepsy (PSE) is a common clinical complication following stroke. Seizures can arise in close temporal association with stroke damage and/or after a variably longer interval. Overall, PSE have a good prognosis; in fact, its responding rate to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) is higher than other types of epilepsy. However, regarding pharmacological treatment, some issues are still unresolved. To this aim, a deeper understanding of mechanisms underlying the transformation of infarcted tissue into an epileptic focus or better from a nonepileptic brain to an epileptic brain is also mandatory for PSE. However, studying epileptogenesis in patients with PSE clearly has several limitations and difficulties; therefore, modeling PSE is crucial. Until now, different experimental models have been used to study the etiopathology of cerebrovascular stroke with or without infarction, but few studies focused on poststroke epileptogenesis and PSE. In this review, we show a brief overview on the features emerging from preclinical research into experimental PSE, which could affect the discovery of biomarkers and therapy strategies for poststroke epileptogenesis. This article is part of the Special Issue "Seizures & Stroke".

Early seizures after ischemic stroke: focus on thrombolysis

INTRODUCTION

Stroke is a significant underlying cause of epilepsy. Seizures due to ischemic stroke (IS) are generally categorized into early seizures (ESs) and late seizures (LSs). Seizures in thrombolysis situations may raise the possibility of other etiology than IS.

AIM

We overtook a systematic review focusing on the pathogenesis, prevalence, risk factors, detection, management, and clinical outcome of ESs in IS and in stroke/thrombolysis situations. We also collected articles focusing on the association of recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator (rt-PA) treatment and epileptic seizures.

RESULTS

We have identified 37 studies with 36,775 participants. ES rate was 3.8% overall in patients with IS with geographical differences. Cortical involvement, severe stroke, hemorrhagic transformation, age (<65 years), large lesion, and atrial fibrillation were the most important risk factors. Sixty-one percent of ESs were partial and 39% were general. Status epilepticus (SE) occurred in 16.3%. 73.6% had an onset within 24 h and 40% may present at the onset of stroke syndrome. Based on EEG findings seizure-like activity could be detected only in approximately 18% of ES patients. MRI diffusion-weighted imaging and multimodal brain imaging may help in the differentiation of ischemia vs. seizure. There are no specific recommendations with regard to the treatment of ES.

CONCLUSION

ESs are rare complications of acute stroke with substantial burden. A significant proportion can be presented at the onset of stroke requiring an extensive diagnostic workup.

Risk Factors for Epilepsy After Thrombolysis for Ischemic Stroke: A Cohort Study

The effects of thrombolysis in seizure and epilepsy after acute ischemic stroke have been poorly explored. In this study, we examine risk factors and consequences of intravenous rt-PA for treatment of acute ischemic stroke. In a retrospective cohort study we evaluate risk factors for seizure and epilepsy after stroke thrombolysis, as well as the impact of seizures and epilepsy in outcome of stroke patients. In our cohort, mean age of patients was 67.2 years old (SD = 13.1) and 79 of them (51.6%) were male and. Initial NIHSS mean score were 10.95 (SD = 6.25). Three months NIHSS mean score was 2.09 (SD = 3.55). Eighty seven (56.9%) patients were mRS of 0–1 after thrombolysis. Hemorrhagic transformation was observed in 22 (14.4%) patients. Twenty-one (13.7%) patients had seizures and 15 (9.8%) patients developed epilepsy after thrombolysis. Seizures were independently associated with hemorrhagic transformation (OR = 3.26; 95% CI = 1.08–9.78; p = 0.035) and with mRS ≥ 2 at 3 months after stroke (OR = 3.51; 95% CI = 1.20–10.32; p = 0.022). Hemorrhagic transformation (OR = 3.55; 95% CI = 1.11–11.34; p = 0.033) and mRS ≥ 2 at 3 months (OR = 5.82; 95% CI = 1.45–23.42; p = 0.013) were variables independently associated with post-stroke epilepsy. In our study, independent risks factors for poor outcome in stroke thrombolysis were age (OR = 1.03; 95% CI = 1.01–1.06; p = 0.011), higher NIHSS (OR = 1.08; 95% CI = 1.03–1.14; p = 0.001), hemorrhagic transformation (OR = 2.33; 95% CI = 1.11–4.76; p = 0.024), seizures (OR = 3.07; 95% CI = 1.22–7.75; p = 0.018) and large cortical area (ASPECTS ≤ 7) (OR = 2.04; 95% CI = 1.04–3.84; p = 0.036). Concluding, in this retrospective cohort study, the neurological impairment after thrombolysis (but not before) and hemorrhagic transformation remained independent risk factors for seizures or post-stroke epilepsy after thrombolysis. Moreover, we observed that seizures emerged as an independent risk factor for poor outcome after thrombolysis therapy in stroke patients (OR = 3.07; 95% CI = 1.22–7.75; p = 0.018).

Role of cerebral glutamate in post-stroke epileptogenesis

Stroke is one of the most important causes of acquired epilepsy in the adult population. While factors such as cortical involvement and haemorrhage have been associated with increased seizure risk, the mechanisms underlying the development of epilepsy after stroke remain unclear. One hypothesised mechanism is an excitotoxic effect of abnormal glutamate release following a stroke. Cerebral extracellular glutamate levels are known to rise in the setting of acute stroke, and numerous studies have implicated glutamate in the pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy, both through direct measurement of glutamate from the epileptic brain and by analysis of receptors and transporters central to glutamate homeostasis. While experimental evidence suggests the cellular injury induced by glutamate exposure may lead to development of an epileptic phenotype, there is little direct data linking the rise in glutamate during stroke with the later development of epilepsy. Clinical research in this field has been hampered by the lack of non-invasive methods to measure cerebral glutamate. However, with the increasing availability of 7T MRI technology, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy is able to better resolve glutamate from other chemical species at this field strength, and Glutamate Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (GluCEST) imaging has been applied to localise epileptic foci in non-lesional focal epilepsy. This review outlines the evidence implicating a pivotal role for cerebral glutamate in the development of post-stroke epilepsy, and exploring the role of MRI in studying glutamate as a biomarker and therefore its suitability as a molecular target for anti-epileptogenic therapies. We hypothesise that the rise in glutamate levels in the setting of acute stroke is a clinically relevant biomarker for the development of post-stroke epilepsy.

Incidence, Implications, and Management of Seizures Following Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we summarize the recent literature regarding the incidence and treatment of seizures arising after ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes. Additionally, we identify open questions in guidelines and standard clinical care to aid future studies aiming to improve management of seizures in post-stroke patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies demonstrate an increasing prevalence of seizures following strokes, probably a consequence of advances in post-stroke management and expanding use of continuous EEG monitoring. Post-stroke seizures are associated with longer hospitalization and increased mortality; therefore, prevention and timely treatment of seizures are important. The standard of care is to treat recurrent seizures with anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) regardless of the etiology. However, there are no established guidelines currently for prophylactic use of AEDs following a stroke. The prevalence of post-stroke seizures is increasing. Further studies are needed to determine the risk factors for recurrent seizures and epilepsy after strokes and optimal treatment strategies.

Low Density Receptor-Related Protein 1 Interactions With the Extracellular Matrix: More Than Meets the Eye

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a biological substrate composed of collagens, proteoglycans and glycoproteins that ensures proper cell migration and adhesion and keeps the cell architecture intact. The regulation of the ECM composition is a vital process strictly controlled by, among others, proteases, growth factors and adhesion receptors. As it appears, ECM remodeling is also essential for proper neuronal and glial development and the establishment of adequate synaptic signaling. Hence, disturbances in ECM functioning are often present in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s disease. Moreover, mutations in ECM molecules are found in some forms of epilepsy and malfunctioning of ECM-related genes and pathways can be seen in, for example, cancer or ischemic injury. Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (Lrp1) is a member of the low density lipoprotein receptor family. Lrp1 is involved not only in ligand uptake, receptor mediated endocytosis and lipoprotein transport—functions shared by low density lipoprotein receptor family members—but also regulates cell surface protease activity, controls cellular entry and binding of toxins and viruses, protects against atherosclerosis and acts on many cell signaling pathways. Given the plethora of functions, it is not surprising that Lrp1 also impacts the ECM and is involved in its remodeling. This review focuses on the role of Lrp1 and some of its major ligands on ECM function. Specifically, interactions with two Lrp1 ligands, integrins and tissue plasminogen activator are described in more detail.

Poststroke seizure: optimising its management

Seizure after stroke or poststroke seizure (PSS) is a common and very important complication of stroke. It can be divided into early seizure and late seizure, depending on seizure onset time after the stroke. It has been reported that ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke accounts for about 11% of all adult epilepsy cases and 45% of epilepsy cases over 60 years of age. However, there are no reliable guidelines in clinical practice regarding most of the fundamental issues of PSS management. In recent years there has been an increased interest in the study of PSS which may give clinical practitioners a better picture of how to optimise PSS management. Studies have indicated two peaks in PSS occurrence—the first day and 6–12 months after a stroke. Haemorrhagic stroke, cortical involvement, severity of initial neurological deficit, younger patients (<65 years of age), family history of seizures and certain genetic factors carry a higher risk of PSS. The use of continuous electroencephalogram has demonstrated significant benefits in capturing interictal or ictal abnormalities, especially in cases of non-convulsive seizures and non-convulsive status epilepticus. Current available data indicated that there was no significant difference in antiepileptic efficacy among most of the antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in PSS. Levetiracetam and lamotrigine are the most studied newer generation AEDs and have the best drug tolerance. The purpose of this review is to summarise the recent advances in PSS research and focus on the most important practice issues of PSS management.

Stroke-related epilepsy

Stroke is the cause of about 10% of all epilepsy and 55% of newly diagnosed seizures among the elderly. Although recent advances in acute stroke therapy have improved longevity, there has been a consequent rise in the prevalence of stroke-related epilepsy (STRE). Many clinical studies make a distinction between early (within 7 days of onset of stroke) and late (beyond 7 days of onset of stroke) seizures based on presumed pathophysiological differences. Although early seizures are thought to be the consequence of local metabolic disturbances without altered neuronal networks, late seizures are thought to occur when the brain has acquired a predisposition for seizures. Overall, STRE has a good prognosis, being well controlled by antiepileptic drugs. However, up to 25% of cases become drug resistant. STRE can also result in increased morbidity, longer hospitalization, greater disability at discharge and greater resource utilization. Additional controlled trials are needed to explore the primary and secondary prevention of STRE as well as to provide high-quality evidence on efficacy and tolerability of antiepileptic drugs to guide treatment of STRE. Robust pre-clinical and clinical prediction models of STRE are also needed to develop treatments to prevent the transformation of infarcted tissue into an epileptic focus.

Association between different acute stroke therapies and development of post stroke seizures

Background

Epilepsy is a major complication of stroke. We aimed to establish whether there is an association between intravenous thrombolysis, intra-arterial thrombolysis and post stroke seizure (PSS) development. Improved understanding of the relationship between reperfusion therapies and seizure development may improve post-stroke monitoring and follow-up.

Methods

This was a retrospective, multicentre cohort study conducted at the Royal Melbourne Hospital and Jingling Hospital Nanjing. We included patients with anterior circulation ischemic stroke admitted 2008–2015. Patients were divided into four treatment groups 1. IV-tPA only, 2. Intra-arterial therapies (IAT) only, 3. IAT + IV-tPA and 4. stroke unit care only (i.e. no IV-tPA or IAT). To assess the association between type of reperfusion treatment and seizure incidence we used multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for age, stroke severity, 3-month functional outcome and prognostic factors.

Results

There were 1375 stroke unit care-only patients, of whom 28 (2%) developed PSS. There were 363 patients who received only IV-tPA, of whom 21 (5.8%) developed PSS. There were 93 patients who received IAT only, of whom 12 (12.9%) developed PSS and 112 that received both IV-tPA + IAT, of which 5 (4.5%) developed PSS. All reperfusion treatments were associated with seizure development compared to stroke unit care-only patients: IV-tPA only adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 3.7, 95%CI 1.8–7.4, p < 0.0001; IAT aOR 5.5, 95%CI 2.1–14.3, p < 0.0001, IAT + IV-tPA aOR 3.4, 95% CI 0.98–11.8, p = 0.05. These aORs did not differ significantly between treatment groups (IV-tPA + IAT versus IV-tPA p = 0.89, IV-tPA + IAT versus IAT, p = 0.44).

Conclusions

Patients receiving thrombolytic or intra-arterial reperfusion therapies for acute ischemic stroke are at higher risk of epilepsy and may benefit from longer follow-up. No evidence for an additive or synergistic effect of treatment modality on seizure development was found.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12883-018-1064-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association between implementation of a code stroke system and poststroke epilepsy

Objective

We aimed to investigate the effect of a code stroke system on the development of poststroke epilepsy.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed consecutive patients treated with IV thrombolysis under or outside the code stroke system between 2003 and 2012. Patients were followed up for at least 2 years or until death. Factors with p < 0.1 in univariate comparisons were selected for multivariable logistic and Cox regression.

Results

A total of 409 patients met the eligibility criteria. Their median age at stroke onset was 75 years (interquartile range 64–83 years); 220 (53.8%) were male. The median follow-up duration was 1,074 days (interquartile range 119–1,671 days). Thirty-two patients (7.8%) had poststroke seizures during follow-up, comprising 7 (1.7%) with acute symptomatic seizures and 25 (6.1%) with late-onset seizures. Twenty-six patients (6.4%) fulfilled the definition of poststroke epilepsy. Three hundred eighteen patients (77.8%) were treated with the code stroke system while 91 (22.2%) were not. After adjustment for age and stroke etiology, use of the code stroke system was associated with decreased odds of poststroke epilepsy (odds ratio = 0.36, 95% confidence interval 0.14–0.87, p = 0.024). Cox regression showed lower adjusted hazard rates for poststroke epilepsy within 5 years for patients managed under the code stroke system (hazard ratio = 0.60, 95% confidence interval 0.47–0.79, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

The code stroke system was associated with reduced odds and instantaneous risk of poststroke epilepsy. Further studies are required to identify the contribution of the individual components and mechanisms against epileptogenesis after stroke.

Classification of evidence

This study provides Class III evidence that for people with acute ischemic stroke, implementation of a code stroke system reduces the risk of poststroke epilepsy.

Frequency, determinants, and effects of early seizures after thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke: The ENCHANTED trial

Background

Seizures after ischemic stroke have not been well-studied. We aim to determine the frequency, determinants, and significance of early seizures after thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke.

Methods

Data are from the Enhanced Control of Hypertension and Thrombolysis Stroke Study (ENCHANTED), an international, multicenter, randomized controlled trial where patients with acute ischemic stroke were randomized to low-dose (0.6 mg/kg) or standard-dose (0.9 mg/kg) IV alteplase. The protocol prespecified prospective data collection on in-hospital seizures over 7 days postrandomization. Logistic regression models were used to determine variables associated with seizures and their significance on poor outcomes of death or disability (modified Rankin scale scores 3-6), symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage (sICH), and European Quality of Life 5-Dimensions questionnaire [EQ-5D] over 90 days.

Results

Data were available for 3,139 acute ischemic stroke participants, of whom 42 (1.3%) had seizures at a median 22.7 hours after the onset of symptoms. Baseline variables associated with seizures were male sex (odds ratio [OR] 2.19, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.07-4.50), severe neurologic impairment (NIH Stroke Scale score ≥10; OR 2.16, 95% CI 1.06-4.40), and fever (OR 4.55, 95% CI 2.37-8.71). Seizures independently predicted poor recovery: death or major disability (OR 2.88, 95% CI 1.28-6.47), unfavorable ordinal shift of mRS scores (OR 1.94, 95% CI 1.10-3.39), and lower than median EQ-5D health utility index score (OR 3.50, 95% CI 1.37-8.91). There was no association of seizures with sICH in adjusted analysis.

Conclusions

In thrombolysis-treated patients with acute ischemic stroke, seizures are uncommon, occur early, and predict poor recovery.

Clinicaltrialsgov identifier

NCT01422616.

Post-Stroke Seizures Is Associated with Low Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score

Background: Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of new-onset seizures. Cortical ischemia and large ischemic lesion size are among the most consistently reported risk factors for post-stroke seizures. Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score (ASPECTS) is a simple and reliable tool for quantifying the extent of cerebral ischemia and may function as a screening tool for patients with high risk of seizure development. We investigated the association of post-stroke seizures with the extent of ischemia assessed by ASPECTS and with cortical involvement identified on non-contrast CT (NCCT). Methods: This cohort study was based on a prospectively maintained clinical database of acute ischemic stroke patients who were given intravenous tissue plasminogen activator treatment. We included patients with anterior circulation stroke admitted between January 2008 and October 2014. Patients with pre-stroke seizures were excluded. Clinical data and seizure follow-up data were collected. NCCT scans acquired both on stroke admission and at 24 h were analyzed. Logistic regression and cox regression were performed in statistical analysis. Results: A total of 348 patients (median age 73 years, interquartile range [IQR] 63-80, 55% male) were included. During follow-up (median duration 559 days, IQR 107.5-1188.5 days), 22 (6.3%) patients developed post-stroke seizures. Median time from stroke to seizure onset was 138 days (IQR 10-342 days). In univariate logistic regression, both ASPECTS on admission (OR 0.69 per 1-point increase; 95% CI 0.55-0.86; p = 0.001) and at 24 h (OR 0.80 per 1-point increase; 95% CI 0.70-0.92; p = 0.002) were significantly associated with post-stroke seizures. Cortical involvement at 24 h also correlated with seizure occurrence (OR 3.01; 95% CI 1.08-8.34; p = 0.03). Cox regression confirmed the higher risk of developing seizures at any time point in patients with lower ASPECTS value and cortical ischemia. Of note, ASPECTS was the only independent predictor for post-stroke seizures in multivariate logistic regression. Conclusion: The extent of ischemia assessed by ASPECTS and cortical involvement identified on NCCT were associated with the development of post-stroke seizures.

tPA Modulation of the Blood-Brain Barrier: A Unifying Explanation for the Pleiotropic Effects of tPA in the CNS

The plasminogen activation (PA) system is best known for its role in fibrinolysis. However, it has also been shown to regulate many nonfibrinolytic functions in the central nervous system (CNS). In particular, tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) is reported to have pleiotropic activities in the CNS, regulating events such as neuronal plasticity, excitotoxicity, and cerebrovascular barrier integrity, whereas urokinase-type plasminogen activator is mainly associated with tissue remodeling and cell migration. It has been suggested that the role tPA plays in controlling barrier integrity may provide a unifying mechanism for the reported diverse, and often opposing, functions ascribed to tPA in the CNS. Here we will review the possibility that the pleiotropic effects reported for tPA in physiologic and pathologic processes in the CNS may be a consequence of its role in the neurovascular unit in regulation of cerebrovascular responses and subsequently parenchymal homeostasis. We propose that this might offer an explanation for the ongoing debate regarding the neurotoxic versus neuroprotective roles of tPA.

Poststroke epilepsy: update and future directions

Stroke is among the most common causes of epilepsy after middle age. Patients with poststroke epilepsy (PSE) differ in several respects from patients with other forms of structural-metabolic epilepsy; not least in age, age-related sensitivity to side effects of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), and specific drug-drug interaction issues related to secondary-stroke prophylaxis. Encouragingly, there has lately been remarkable activity in the study of PSE. Three developments in PSE research deserve particular focus. First, large prospective trials have established the incidence and risk factors of PSE in the setting of modern stroke care. Stroke severity, cortical location, young age, and haemorrhage remain the most important risk factors. Second, although more studies are needed, epidemiological data indicate that the risk of PSE may be influenced, for instance, by statin treatment. Third, studies are emerging regarding the treatment and prognosis of PSE. Levetiracetam and lamotrigine may be well tolerated treatment options and seizure freedom is achieved in at least a similar proportion of patients as in other epilepsies. Furthermore, new animal models such as photothrombotic stroke gives hope of a more clear understanding of PSE epileptogenesis in the near future. In summary, PSE shows indications of maturing into an independent epilepsy research field. This review summarizes recent advances in our understanding of PSE and provides an update on management issues such as diagnosis, AED selection, and prognosis. Finally, future research challenges in the field are outlined.

Computed tomography perfusion as a diagnostic tool for seizures after ischemic stroke

INTRODUCTION

Cerebral cortical ischemia is a risk factor for post-stroke seizures. However, the optimal imaging method is unclear. We investigated CT perfusion (CTP) in detecting cortical ischemia and its correlation with post-stroke seizures compared with non-contrast CT (NCCT).

METHODS

We included patients with acute ischemic stroke admitted to the Royal Melbourne Hospital between 2009 and 2014. Post-stroke seizure information was collected. Cortical involvement was determined on acute NCCT and CTP (T max, cerebral blood volume [CBV], and cerebral blood flow [CBF]). The association between cortical involvement detected by different imaging modalities and post-stroke seizures was examined.

RESULTS

Three-hundred fifty-two patients were included for analysis. Fifty-nine percent were male, and median age was 73 years (inter-quartile range 61-82). Follow-up was available for 96 %; median follow-up duration was 377 days (inter-quartile range 91-1018 days). Thirteen patients had post-stroke seizures (3.9 %). Cortical involvement was significantly associated with post-stroke seizures across all modalities. CBV had the highest hazard ratio (11.3, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.1-41.2), followed by NCCT (5.3, 95 % CI 1.5-18.0) and CBF (4.2, 95 % CI 1.1-15.2). Sensitivity was highest for T max (100 %), followed by CBV and CBF (both 76.9 %) and NCCT (63.6 %). Specificity was highest for CBV (77.8 %), then NCCT (75.6 %), CBF (54.0 %), and T max (29.1 %). Receiver-operating characteristic area under the curve was significantly different between imaging modalities (p < 0.001), CBV 0.77, NCCT 0.70, CBF 0.65, and T max 0.65.

CONCLUSION

CTP may improve sensitivity and specificity of cortical involvement for post-stroke seizures compared to NCCT.

Identification of a neurovascular signaling pathway regulating seizures in mice

OBJECTIVE

A growing body of evidence suggests that increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability can contribute to the development of seizures. The protease tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) has been shown to promote BBB permeability and susceptibility to seizures. In this study, we examined the pathway regulated by tPA in seizures.

METHODS

An experimental model of kainate-induced seizures was used in genetically modified mice, including mice deficient in tPA (tPA (-/-) ), its inhibitor neuroserpin (Nsp (-/-) ), or both (Nsp:tPA (-/-) ), and in mice conditionally deficient in the platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα).

RESULTS

Compared to wild-type (WT) mice, Nsp (-/-) mice have significantly reduced latency to seizure onset and generalization; whereas tPA (-/-) mice have the opposite phenotype, as do Nsp:tPA (-/-) mice. Furthermore, interventions that maintain BBB integrity delay seizure propagation, whereas osmotic disruption of the BBB in seizure-resistant tPA (-/-) mice dramatically reduces the time to seizure onset and accelerates seizure progression. The phenotypic differences in seizure progression between WT, tPA (-/-) , and Nsp (-/-) mice are also observed in electroencephalogram recordings in vivo, but absent in ex vivo electrophysiological recordings where regulation of the BBB is no longer necessary to maintain the extracellular environment. Finally, we demonstrate that these effects on seizure progression are mediated through signaling by PDGFRα on perivascular astrocytes.

INTERPRETATION

Together, these data identify a specific molecular pathway involving tPA-mediated PDGFRα signaling in perivascular astrocytes that regulates seizure progression through control of the BBB. Inhibition of PDGFRα signaling and maintenance of BBB integrity might therefore offer a novel clinical approach for managing seizures.

Early life maternal separation stress augmentation of limbic epileptogenesis: the role of corticosterone and HPA axis programming

Early life stress causes long-lasting effects on the limbic system that may be relevant to the development of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) and its associated psychopathology. Recent studies in rats suggest that maternal separation (MS), a model of early life stress, confers enduring vulnerability to amygdala kindling limbic epileptogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying this remain unknown. Here, we tested whether hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyper-reactivity induced by MS - specifically the excessive secretion of corticosterone following a seizure - was involved in this vulnerability. In adult female rats subjected to MS from postnatal days 2-14, seizure-induced corticosterone responses were significantly augmented and prolonged for at least two hours post-seizure, compared to control early-handled (EH) rats. This was accompanied by reduced seizure threshold (p<0.05) and increased vulnerability to the kindling-induced progression of seizure duration (p<0.05) in MS rats. Pre-seizure treatment with the corticosterone synthesis inhibitor, metyrapone (MET) (50mg/kgsc) effectively blocked seizure-induced corticosterone responses. When delivered throughout kindling, MET treatment also reversed the MS-induced reduction in seizure threshold and the lengthened seizure duration back to levels of EH rats. These observations suggest that adverse early life environments induce a vulnerability to kindling epileptogenesis mediated by HPA axis hyper-reactivity, which could have relevance for the pathogenesis of MTLE.