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Kany S, Janicova A, Relja B. Innate Immunity and Alcohol. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8111981. [PMID: 31739600 PMCID: PMC6912266 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8111981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immunity has evolved during millions of years, and thus, equivalent or comparable components are found in most vertebrates, invertebrates, and even plants. It constitutes the first line of defense against molecules, which are either pathogen-derived or a danger signal themselves, and not seldom both. These molecular patterns are comprised of highly conserved structures, a common trait in innate immunity, and constitute very potent triggers for inflammation mediated via extracellular or intracellular pattern recognition receptors. Human culture is often interweaved with the consumption of alcohol, in both drinking habits, its acute or chronical misuse. Apart from behavioral effects as often observed in intoxicated individuals, alcohol consumption also leads to immunological modulation on the humoral and cellular levels. In the last 20 years, major advances in this field of research have been made in clinical studies, as well as in vitro and in vivo research. As every physician will experience intoxicated patients, it is important to be aware of the changes that this cohort undergoes. This review will provide a summary of the current knowledge on the influence of alcohol consumption on certain factors of innate immunity after a hit, followed by the current studies that display the effect of alcohol with a description of the model, the mode of alcohol administration, as well as its dose. This will provide a way for the reader to evaluate the findings presented.
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Suppression of Gut Bacterial Translocation Ameliorates Vascular Calcification through Inhibiting Toll-Like Receptor 9-Mediated BMP-2 Expression. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2019; 2019:3415682. [PMID: 31007833 PMCID: PMC6441534 DOI: 10.1155/2019/3415682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Aims Vascular calcification (VC) is a primary risk factor for cardiovascular mortality in chronic renal failure (CRF) patients; thus, effective therapeutic targets are urgently needed to be explored. Here, we identified the role of intestinal bacterial translocation in CRF-related VC. Methods and Results Antibiotic supplementation by oral gavage significantly suppressed intestinal bacterial translocation, CRF-related VC, and aortic osteogenic gene and Toll-like receptor (TLR) gene expression in CRF rats. Furthermore, TLR4 and TLR9 activation in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) aggravated inorganic phosphate- (Pi-) induced calcification. TLR9 inhibition, but not TLR4 inhibition, by both a pharmacological inhibitor and genetic methods could significantly reduce CRF rats' serum or CRF-induced VC. Interestingly, bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2) levels were increased in the aorta and sera from CRF rats. Increased BMP-2 levels were also observed in VSMCs treated with TLR9 agonist, which was blocked by NF-κB inhibition. Both siRNA knockdown of BMP-2 and NF-κB inhibitor significantly blocked TLR9 agonist-induced VSMC calcification. Conclusions Gut bacterial translocation inhibited by oral antibiotic significantly reduces CRF-related VC through inhibition of TLR9/NF-κB/BMP-2 signaling.
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Zhong Z, Lemasters JJ. A Unifying Hypothesis Linking Hepatic Adaptations for Ethanol Metabolism to the Proinflammatory and Profibrotic Events of Alcoholic Liver Disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2018; 42:2072-2089. [PMID: 30132924 PMCID: PMC6214771 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of alcoholic liver disease (ALD) remains poorly understood but is likely a multihit pathophysiological process. Here, we propose a hypothesis of how early mitochondrial adaptations for alcohol metabolism lead to ALD pathogenesis. Acutely, ethanol (EtOH) feeding causes a near doubling of hepatic EtOH metabolism and oxygen consumption within 2 to 3 hours. This swift increase in alcohol metabolism (SIAM) is an adaptive response to hasten metabolic elimination of both EtOH and its more toxic metabolite, acetaldehyde (AcAld). In association with SIAM, EtOH causes widespread hepatic mitochondrial depolarization (mtDepo), which stimulates oxygen consumption. In parallel, voltage-dependent anion channels (VDAC) in the mitochondrial outer membrane close. Together, VDAC closure and respiratory stimulation promote selective and more rapid oxidation of EtOH first to AcAld in the cytosol and then to nontoxic acetate in mitochondria, since membrane-permeant AcAld does not require VDAC to enter mitochondria. VDAC closure also inhibits mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and ATP release, promoting steatosis and a decrease in cytosolic ATP. After acute EtOH, these changes revert as EtOH is eliminated with little hepatocellular cytolethality. mtDepo also stimulates mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy). After chronic high EtOH exposure, the capacity to process depolarized mitochondria by mitophagy becomes compromised, leading to intra- and extracellular release of damaged mitochondria, mitophagosomes, and/or autolysosomes containing mitochondrial damage-associated molecular pattern (mtDAMP) molecules. mtDAMPs cause inflammasome activation and promote inflammatory and profibrogenic responses, causing hepatitis and fibrosis. We propose that persistence of mitochondrial responses to EtOH metabolism becomes a tipping point, which links initial adaptive EtOH metabolism to maladaptive changes initiating onset and progression of ALD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Zhong
- Department of Drug Discovery & Biomedical Sciences and
| | - John J. Lemasters
- Department of Drug Discovery & Biomedical Sciences and
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425
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Hege M, Jung F, Sellmann C, Jin C, Ziegenhardt D, Hellerbrand C, Bergheim I. An iso-α-acid-rich extract from hops (Humulus lupulus) attenuates acute alcohol-induced liver steatosis in mice. Nutrition 2017; 45:68-75. [PMID: 29129239 DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2017.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Results of in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that consumption of beer is less harmful for the liver than consumption of spirits. It also has been suggested that secondary plant compounds derived from hops such as xanthohumol or iso-α-acids may have beneficial effects on the development of liver diseases of various etiologies. The aim of this study was to determine whether iso-α-acids consumed in doses achieved by "normal" beer consumption have beneficial effects on health. METHODS Female C57 Bl/6 J mice, pretreated for 4 d with an iso-α-acid-rich extract (∼30% iso-α-acids from hops, 0.75 mg/kg body weight), were fed one bolus of ethanol (6 g/kg body weight intragastric) or an iso-caloric maltodextrin solution. Markers of liver damage, toll-like receptor-4 signaling, and lipid peroxidation were determined. Furthermore, the effect of isohumulone on the lipopolysaccharide-dependent activation of J774 A.1 macrophages, used as a model of Kupffer cells, was determined. RESULTS In the liver, acute ethanol administration led to a significant accumulation of fat (∼10-fold), which was accompanied by significantly higher inducible nitric oxide synthase protein level, elevated nitric oxide production, and increased plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 protein concentration when compared to controls. In mice pretreated with iso-α-acids, these effects of alcohol were markedly attenuated. Pretreatment of J774 A.1 macrophages with isohumulone significantly attenuated lipopolysaccharide-induced mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and interleukin-6 as well as the release of nitric oxide. CONCLUSION Taken together, iso-α-acids markedly attenuated the development of acute alcohol-induced damage in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Hege
- Institute of Nutrition, SD Model Systems of Molecular Nutrition, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Finn Jung
- Institute of Nutrition, SD Model Systems of Molecular Nutrition, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany; Department of Nutritional Sciences, Molecular Nutritional Science, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Cathrin Sellmann
- Institute of Nutrition, SD Model Systems of Molecular Nutrition, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Chengjun Jin
- Institute of Nutrition, SD Model Systems of Molecular Nutrition, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Doreen Ziegenhardt
- Institute of Nutrition, SD Model Systems of Molecular Nutrition, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Claus Hellerbrand
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany; Institute of Biochemistry, Emil-Fischer-Zentrum, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ina Bergheim
- Institute of Nutrition, SD Model Systems of Molecular Nutrition, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany; Department of Nutritional Sciences, Molecular Nutritional Science, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Beattie L, Sawtell A, Mann J, Frame TCM, Teal B, de Labastida Rivera F, Brown N, Walwyn-Brown K, Moore JWJ, MacDonald S, Lim EK, Dalton JE, Engwerda CR, MacDonald KP, Kaye PM. Bone marrow-derived and resident liver macrophages display unique transcriptomic signatures but similar biological functions. J Hepatol 2016; 65:758-768. [PMID: 27262757 PMCID: PMC5028381 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Kupffer cells (KCs), the resident tissue macrophages of the liver, play a crucial role in the clearance of pathogens and other particulate materials that reach the systemic circulation. Recent studies have identified KCs as a yolk sac-derived resident macrophage population that is replenished independently of monocytes in the steady state. Although it is now established that following local tissue injury, bone marrow derived monocytes may infiltrate the tissue and differentiate into macrophages, the extent to which newly differentiated macrophages functionally resemble the KCs they have replaced has not been extensively studied. METHODS We studied the two populations of KCs using intravital microscopy, morphometric analysis and gene expression profiling. An ion homeostasis gene signature, including genes associated with scavenger receptor function and extracellular matrix deposition, allowed discrimination between these two KC sub-types. RESULTS Bone marrow derived "KCs" accumulating as a result of genotoxic injury, resemble but are not identical to their yolk sac counterparts. Reflecting the differential expression of scavenger receptors, yolk sac-derived KCs were more effective at accumulating acetylated low density lipoprotein, whereas surprisingly, they were poorer than bone marrow-derived KCs when assessed for uptake of a range of bacterial pathogens. The two KC populations were almost indistinguishable in regard to i) response to lipopolysaccharide challenge, ii) phagocytosis of effete red blood cells and iii) their ability to contain infection and direct granuloma formation against Leishmania donovani, a KC-tropic intracellular parasite. CONCLUSIONS Bone marrow-derived KCs differentiate locally to resemble yolk sac-derived KC in most but not all respects, with implications for models of infectious diseases, liver injury and bone marrow transplantation. In addition, the gene signature we describe adds to the tools available for distinguishing KC subpopulations based on their ontology. LAY SUMMARY Liver macrophages play a major role in the control of infections in the liver and in the pathology associated with chronic liver diseases. It was recently shown that liver macrophages can have two different origins, however, the extent to which these populations are functionally distinct remains to be fully addressed. Our study demonstrates that whilst liver macrophages share many features in common, regardless of their origin, some subtle differences in function exist. DATA REPOSITORY Gene expression data are available from the European Bioinformatics Institute ArrayExpress data repository (accession number E-MTAB-4954).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynette Beattie
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Rd, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | - Amy Sawtell
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Jason Mann
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Teija C M Frame
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Rd, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | - Bianca Teal
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Rd, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | | | - Najmeeyah Brown
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Katherine Walwyn-Brown
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - John W J Moore
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Sandy MacDonald
- Biosciences Technology Facility, Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Eng-Kiat Lim
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Jane E Dalton
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Christian R Engwerda
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Rd, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | - Kelli P MacDonald
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Rd, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | - Paul M Kaye
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hull York Medical School and Dept. of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK.
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Long-term alcohol consumption increases pro-matrix metalloproteinase-9 levels via oxidative stress. J Med Toxicol 2010; 6:126-30. [PMID: 20405265 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-010-0081-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in alcoholic liver disease. In this study, we evaluated the relationship between pro MMP-9 (pMMP-9) and oxidative stress in plasma of rat exposed to chronic alcohol consumption. Twenty four rats were divided into four groups. Rats in the control group (n = 6) were subjected to physiologic saline by intragastric (i.g.) route. Group Ethanol (n = 6) was given 1 ml of 80% ethanol (v/v) in distilled water through i.g. route. Group Vitamin E (Vit E), (n = 6) was given vitamin E (100 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹) by intra peritonealy. Group Vitamin E + Ethanol (n = 6) was given vitamin E 2 h before the administration of ethanol. At the end of 4 weeks, blood samples were taken and plasma malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyls (PCs), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and pMMP-9 levels were measured. Chronic ethanol administration increased the AST, MDA, PCs, TNF-α and pMMP-9 levels when compared to those in control group (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.01, p < 0.05, p < 0.05, respectively). Vitamin E treatment was found to decrease lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, respectively). Also TNF-α and pMMP-9 levels returned to normal by vitamin E treatment. Within all subjects, there was positive correlation between pMMP-9 levels and MDA, PCs levels (p = 0.045, r = 0.454; p = 0.004, r = 0.574, respectively). We conclude that since antioxidant supplementation decreases the alcohol-induced pMMP-9 levels, oxidative stress could be one of the mediators of the generation of MMP-9.
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Mitzscherling K, Volynets V, Parlesak A. Phosphatidylcholine reverses ethanol-induced increase in transepithelial endotoxin permeability and abolishes transepithelial leukocyte activation. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2008; 33:557-62. [PMID: 19120061 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00869.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic alcohol abuse increases both intestinal bacterial overgrowth and intestinal permeability to macromolecules. Intestinal permeability of endotoxin, a component of the outer cell membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, plays a crucial role in the development of alcohol-induced liver disease (ALD). As impaired bile flow leads to endotoxemia and the bile component phosphatidylcholine (PC) is therapeutically active in ALD, we tested the hypothesis that conjugated primary bile salts (CPBS) and PC inhibit ethanol-enhanced transepithelial permeability of endotoxin and the subsequent transepithelial activation of human leukocytes. METHODS For this purpose, we used a model in which intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2) were basolaterally cocultivated with mononuclear leukocytes. Cells were challenged apically with endotoxin from Escherichia coli K12 and were incubated with or without the addition of CPBS (1.5 mM), PC (0.38 mM), pooled human bile (2%) in combination with ethanol (0 to 66 mM). RESULTS Ethanol decreased integrity of intestinal epithelial cell monolayer and enhanced transepithelial permeability of endotoxin. Both the transepithelial permeability of endotoxin and the transepithelial stimulation of leukocytes were nearly completely abolished after the apical supplementation of PC with CPBS, but not by CPBS alone. Ethanol up to 66 mM was not able to reverse this effect. CONCLUSIONS A considerable part of the therapeutic and preventive effect of PC supplementation in ALD might result from a reduction of ethanol-enhanced permeability of endotoxin through the intestinal barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Mitzscherling
- Department Physiology of Nutrition, Institute for Nutritional Medicine, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany
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Abstract
Silybum marianum (milk thistle) and its derivatives have been used for centuries for the treatment of liver disease. This review focuses exclusively on published literature pertaining to the potential use of Silybum marianum or its derivatives for the treatment of alcoholic liver disease. Clinical studies have varied greatly in quality, with the majority limited by inadequate sample size, lack of uniformity in the population treated, lack of standardization of preparations studied, variability in dosing regimens, inconsistent outcome measures, and lack of information on concurrent use of alcohol during the treatment period. While Silybum marianum and its derivatives appear to be safe and the available evidence on the mechanisms of action appears promising, there are currently insufficient data from well-conducted clinical trials to recommend their use in patients with alcoholic liver disease.
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Enomoto N, Takei Y, Kitamura T, Hirose M, Ikejima K, Sato N. Estriol Enhances Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Increases in Nitric Oxide Production by Kupffer Cells via Mechanisms Dependent on Endotoxin. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02705.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
Research has substantiated the role of several mechanisms responsible for alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity. These mechanisms include: oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation; immunogenic processes initiated by formation of protein adducts of acetaldehyde, other aldehydes and 1-hydroxyethyl radicals; and activation of Kupffer cells by endotoxin and subsequent cascade of events that involved cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules. Increasing evidence implicates enhanced intestinal permeability caused by alcohol ingestion as the culprit that leads to endotoxemia. While oxidative stress is important, the principal source of reactive oxygen species that causes alcohol-induced liver injury is hotly debated. Potential sources may include cytochrome P450IIE1, activated Kupffer cells, and mitochondrial electron transfer chain. Apoptosis is likely an important pathway that culminates in hepatocyte cell death. Abstinence, corticosteroids, and enteral nutrition remain the cornerstones in the treatment of alcoholic hepatitis. The efficacies of medications such as S-adenosylmethionine and pentoxifylline will need further confirmation by additional randomized trials before they can be recommended as standard therapies for alcoholic hepatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lumeng
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, USA.
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