Underuse of Medications for Chronic Diseases in the Oldest of Community-Dwelling Older Frail Japanese

Association of pneumonia admission with polypharmacy and drug use in community-dwelling older people

AIM

The purpose of the present study was to clarify the association of pneumonia admission with polypharmacy and specific drug use in community-dwelling older people.

METHODS

Using health insurance and long-term care insurance data from Kure city in Japan, we retrospectively collected data for older community-dwelling people (aged ≥65 years) from April 2017 to March 2019. The outcome was pneumonia admission. We carried out multivariate logistic regression analysis to identify the association of pneumonia admission with polypharmacy (≥5 drugs), the use of psychotropic drugs or anticholinergics with adjustment for patient backgrounds, such as comorbidity, and the daily life independence level for the older people with disability.

RESULTS

Of 59 040 older people, 4017 (6.8%) participants were admitted for pneumonia in 2 years. The ratio of polypharmacy, and the use of psychotropic drugs and anticholinergics in the admission group were significantly higher than the non-admission group. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that polypharmacy (odds ratio 1.29, 95% confidence interval 1.18-1.41), and the use of conventional antipsychotic drugs (odds ratio 1.39, 95% confidence interval 1.02-1.90), atypical antipsychotic drugs (odds ratio 1.67, 95% confidence interval 1.37-2.05) and anticholinergics (odds ratio 1.22, 95% confidence interval 1.13-1.33) were significantly associated with pneumonia admission.

CONCLUSION

The present results suggest that polypharmacy, and the use of psychotropic drugs and anticholinergics are risk factors for pneumonia admission. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2024; 24: 404-409.

Under‐prescription of medications in older adults according to START criteria: A cross‐sectional study in Lebanon

Background and Aims

Under‐prescription is defined as the exclusion of medications indicated for the treatment of certain conditions without any rationale for not prescribing them. The under‐prescription of medications is highly prevalent among older adults (≥65 years) receiving polypharmacy. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of the under‐prescription of medications using the Screening Tool to Alert to Right Treatment (START) criteria version 2 and to identify the predictors of having potential prescribing omissions (PPOs).

Methods

This cross‐sectional, face‐to‐face interview study was carried out between September 2021 and February 2022. The study comprised community‐dwelling older adults taking at least one medication on a regular basis. The study questionnaire included the patients' demographics, clinical data, and comorbidities. PPOs were identified using the START criteria. The χ² test was used to assess the association between under‐prescription of medication and the demographic/clinical variables. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to explore factors associated with under‐prescription of medications as the dependent variable and taking all variables that showed a p < 0.05 in the bivariate analysis as independent.

Results

A total of 444 older adults agreed to participate in this study. The mean age of participants was 71 ± 8.6; the majority of them, 305 (68.7%), were men. Polypharmacy was present in 261 patients (58.8%) and underprescribing of medications in 260 patients (58.6%). The highest percentage of under‐prescribing of medications was reported with statins in 115 patients (44.2%) followed by aspirin in 93 (35.7%), and angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors in 61 (23.4%). The results of the multivariable analysis showed that patients with underprescribed medications had higher odds of polypharmacy (odds ratio [OR]: 2.015, confidence interval [CI] 95% 1.362–2.980, p < 0.001) and higher Charlson Comorbidity Index (OR 2.807, CI 95% 1.463–5.85, p = 0.02).

Conclusion

The present findings highlight that PPOs are highly prevalent among community‐dwelling older adults in Lebanon. Multimorbidity and polypharmacy were the identified predictors for under‐prescription of medications in this population.

Pharmacotherapy and the Role of Pharmacists in Rehabilitation Medicine

Pharmacotherapy is important in older patients undergoing rehabilitation because such patients, especially those with frailty and physical disabilities, are susceptible to drug-related functional impairment. Drug-related problems include polypharmacy, potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs), and potential prescription omissions. These problems are associated with adverse drug events such as dysphagia, depression, drowsiness, falls and fractures, incontinence, decreased appetite, and Parkinson's syndrome, leading to impaired improvement in activities of daily living (ADL), quality of life (QOL), and nutritional status. Moreover, the anticholinergic burden is associated with impaired physical and cognitive functions. Therefore, pharmacist-centered multidisciplinary pharmacotherapy should be performed to maximize rehabilitation outcomes. Pharmacotherapy includes a review of all medications, the assessment of drug-related problems, goal setting, correction of polypharmacy and PIMs, monitoring of drug prescriptions, and reassessment of drug-related problems. The goal of pharmacotherapy in rehabilitation medicine is to optimize drug prescribing and to maximize the improvement of ADL and QOL as patient outcomes. The role of pharmacists during rehabilitation is to treat patients as part of multidisciplinary teams and as key members of nutritional support teams. In this review, we aim to highlight existing evidence regarding pharmacotherapy in older adults, including drug-related functional impairment and the association between pharmacotherapy and functional, cognitive, and nutritional outcomes among patients undergoing rehabilitation. In addition, we highlight the important role of pharmacists in maximizing improvements in rehabilitation outcomes and minimizing drug-related adverse effects.

Diagnosis and Management of Cognitive Concerns in the Oldest-Old

Purpose of review

The fastest-growing group of elderly individuals is the "oldest-old," usually defined as those age 85 years and above. These individuals account for much of the rapid increase in cases of dementing illness throughout the world but remain underrepresented in the body of literature on this topic. The aim of this review is first to outline the unique contributing factors and complications that must be considered by clinicians in evaluating an oldest-old individual with cognitive complaints. Secondly, the evidence for management of these cognitive concerns is reviewed.

Recent findings

In addition to well-established associations between impaired cognition and physical disability, falls, and frailty, there is now evidence that exercise performed decades earlier confers a cognitive benefit in the oldest-old. Moreover, though aggressive blood pressure control is critical earlier in life for prevention of strokes, renal disease, and other comorbidities, hypertension started after age 80 is in fact associated with a decreased risk of clinical dementia, carrying significant implications for the medical management of oldest-old individuals. The oldest-old are more likely to reside in care facilities, where social isolation might be exacerbated by a consistently lower rate of internet-connected device use. The COVID-19 pandemic has not only highlighted the increased mortality rate among the oldest-old but has also brought the increased social isolation in this group to the forte.

Summary

Differing from the "younger-old" in a number of respects, the oldest-old is a unique population not just in their vulnerability to cognitive disorders but also in the diagnostic challenges they can pose. The oldest-old are more likely to be afflicted by sensory deficits, physical disability, poor nutrition, frailty, and depression, which must be accounted for in the assessment of cognitive complaints as they may confound or complicate the presentation. Social isolation and institutionalization are also associated with impaired cognition, perhaps as sequelae, precipitants, or both. Ante-mortem diagnostic tools remain particularly limited among the oldest-old, especially given the likelihood of these individuals to have multiple co-occurring types of neuropathology, and the presence of neuropathology in those who remain cognitively intact. In addition to the symptomatic treatments indicated for patients of all ages with dementia, management of cognitive impairment in the oldest-old may be further optimized by use of assistive devices, augmentation of dietary protein, and liberalization of medication regimens for risk factors such as hypertension.

Polypharmacy in older adults: a narrative review of definitions, epidemiology and consequences

BACKGROUND

The number of older adults has been constantly growing around the globe. Consequently, multimorbidity and related polypharmacy have become an increasing problem. In the absence of an accepted agreement on the definition of polypharmacy, data on its prevalence in various studies are not easily comparable. Besides, the evidence on the potential adverse clinical outcomes related to polypharmacy is limited though polypharmacy has been linked to numerous adverse clinical outcomes. This narrative review aims to find and summarize recent publications on definitions, epidemiology and clinical consequences of polypharmacy.

METHODS

The MEDLINE database was used to identify recent publications on the definition, prevalence and clinical consequences of polypharmacy using their respective common terms and their variations. Systematic reviews and original studies published between 2015 and 2020 were included.

RESULTS

One hundred and forty-three definitions of polypharmacy and associated terms were found. Most of them are numerical definitions. Its prevalence ranges from 4% among community-dwelling older people to over 96.5% in hospitalized patients. In addition, numerous adverse clinical outcomes were associated with polypharmacy.

CONCLUSION

The term polypharmacy is imprecise, and its definition is yet subject to an ongoing debate. The clinically oriented definitions of polypharmacy found in this review such as appropriate or necessary polypharmacy are more useful and relevant. Regardless of the definition, polypharmacy is highly prevalent in older adults, particularly in nursing home residents and hospitalized patients. Approaches to increase the appropriateness of polypharmacy can improve clinical outcomes in older adults.

Categorisation of Pharmaceutical Adverse Events Using the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report Database: Characteristic Adverse Drug Events of the Elderly Treated with Polypharmacy

Background

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs in elderly individuals differ from those in younger adults; thus, adverse drug events (ADEs) are common in older patients with polypharmacy because co-existing comorbidities elevate the risk of ADEs occurring. However, ADEs have not yet been characterised based on the elderly patients of Japanese origin and polypharmacy.

Objective

The 100 most commonly reported ADEs were grouped into four classes (Class 1–Class 4) based on elderly patients with polypharmacy.

Patients and Methods

In this study, logistic regression analysis was performed using cases recorded in the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report (JADER) database.

Results

ADEs in elderly patients treated with polypharmacy—in whom the risk of electrolyte abnormalities, renal and respiratory disorders, and coagulopathy was high—were categorised as ‘Class 1 [E(+), P(+)]’, while ADEs in elderly patients not treated with polypharmacy—in whom the risk of delirium and fall was high—were categorised as ‘Class 2 [E(+), P(−)]’. When there was no association with being elderly, ADEs associated with polypharmacy that carried a high risk of myelosuppression and infection were categorised as ‘Class 3 [E(−), P(+)]’, and allergic ADEs that were not affected by being elderly or polypharmacy, were categorised as ‘Class 4 [E(−), P(−)]’. Class 1 events as well as Class 3 ADEs occurred more frequently in females than in males, whereas Class 3 ADEs (deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism) occurred more frequently in males.

Conclusions

Class 1 and Class 2 ADEs should be investigated in analyses that focus on individual drugs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40801-020-00221-8.

Geriatric management of older patients with multimorbidity

Older patients tend to have multimorbidity represented by multiple chronic diseases or geriatric conditions due to aging changes of organs, which require a variety of medical management. Currently, there are no sufficient disease treatment guidelines for older people with multimorbidity, therefore physicians have difficulty managing multimorbidity, such as which diseases should be treated intensively or to what extent the conditions should be improved. Furthermore, there are other points to be considered when initiating the treatment of diseases. For example, physicians must assess physical function. Some people have no difficulty with ambulation, but some are bedridden and have difficulty getting up on their own. As there are differences in disease severity, comorbid conditions and life expectancy, there should be differences in deciding treatment and prescribing drugs. It may be necessary to change the option for treatment depending on cognitive function, the living environment and the care environment, using comprehensive geriatric assessments. In addition, when treating multimorbidity, patients tend to have polypharmacy, which is a risk for adverse drug events. Because of this, it is necessary to consider dose reduction and drug discontinuation in patients with polypharmacy. Because of the global increase in older patients with multimorbidity, developing an essential method for managing multimorbidity is an urgent issue. More research and practices are necessary to achieve high-quality care in patients with multimorbidity. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2020; 20: 1105-1111.

Impact of Age, Multimorbidity and Frailty on the Prescription of Preventive Antiplatelet Therapy in Older Population

Platelet aggregation inhibitors (PAI) have widely proven their efficiency for the prevention of ischemic cardiovascular events. We aimed to describe PAI prescription in an elderly multimorbid population and to determine the factors that influence their prescription, including the impact of age, comorbidities and frailty, evaluated through a comprehensive geriatric assessment. This cross-sectional study included all patients admitted to the acute geriatric department of a university hospital from November 2016 to January 2017. We included 304 consecutive hospitalized patients aged 88.7 ± 5.5 years. One third of the population was treated with PAI. A total of 133 (43.8%) patients had a history of cardiovascular disease, 77 of whom were on PAI. For 16 patients, no indication was identified. The prescription or the absence of PAI were consistent with medical history in 61.8% of patients. In the multivariate analysis, among the 187 patients with an indication for PAI, neither age (odds ratio (OR) = 1.00; 95% confidence interval (CI): [0.91-1.08], per year of age), nor comorbidities (OR = 0.97; 95% CI: [0.75-1.26], per point of Charlson comorbidity index), nor cognitive disorders (OR = 0.98; 95% CI [0.91-1.06] per point of Mini Mental State Examination), nor malnutrition (OR = 1.07; 95% CI [0.96-1.18], per g/L of albumin) were significantly associated with the therapeutic decision. PAI were less prescribed in primary prevention situations, in patients taking anticoagulants and in patients with a history of bleeding. In conclusion, a third of our older comorbid population of inpatients was taking PAI. PAI prescription was consistent with medical history for 61.8% of patients. Age, multimorbidity and frailty do not appear to have a significant influence on therapeutic decision-making. Further research is needed to confirm such a persistence of cardiovascular preventive strategies in frail older patients from other settings and to assess whether these strategies are associated with a clinical benefit in this specific population.

Era of geriatric medical challenges: Multimorbidity among older patients

The number of older adults is increasing worldwide, including in Asian countries. Various problems associated with medical care for older adults are being highlighted in aging societies. As the number of chronic diseases increases with age, older adults are more likely to have multiple chronic diseases simultaneously (multimorbidity). Multimorbidity results in poor health-related outcomes, leading to increased use and cost of healthcare. Above all, it leads to deterioration in older adults' quality of life. However, it is unclear whether any medical interventions are effective for multimorbidity, which means medical practitioners currently offer medical care "in the dark." It is therefore necessary for researchers and medical professionals involved in geriatric medicine to establish ways to manage multimorbidity among older adults. This means that the development of research in this field is essential. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2019; 19: 699-704.

The Association Between Polypharmacy and Physical Function in Older Adults: a Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Reduced physical function and polypharmacy (PPha) are two highly prevalent negative effects of aging, which are expected to increase more, since demographic aging is expected to grow rapidly within the next decades. Previous research suggests that polypharmacy (PPha) is a predictor of poor physical function and vice versa in older adults and therefore we conducted a systematic review of the literature to summarize and critically analyze the relationship between physical function and PPha and vice versa in older adults, in order to provide recent scientific evidence.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE and Embase from their inception to 19th October 2018 for English-language observational studies or trials assessing the effect of PPha on physical function and vice versa in older adults. Two investigators independently extracted study data and assessed the quality of the studies, after having screened the available studies from the literature search. Any disagreement was resolved by consensus.

RESULTS

Eighteen observational studies met the inclusion criteria. Eight studies assessed the impact of physical function on PPha and ten studies assessed the impact of PPha on physical function. Regarding the studies with PPha measurements as the outcome, all of them, except for one, found that better physical function is associated with lower risk of PPha. Likewise, all the studies with physical function measurements as the outcome, except for one, suggested that PPha is associated with lower physical function.

DISCUSSION

Evidence examining the effect of PPha on physical function and vice versa in older adults suggests a strong bidirectional association between these two factors and clinicians should be aware of this strong relationship. The limitations of our study include the high variability in PPha definitions and physical function measures, and the treatment of PPha and physical function as constant instead of time-varying variables in the studies' analyses.

Applying Beers Criteria for Elderly Patients to Assess Rational Drug Use at a University Hospital in Northern Cyprus

Background:

Several regulations for potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) have been published specifically for elderly patients to rationalize drug use in such vulnerable communities.

Objectives:

To determine the proportion and characteristics of PIMs in patients receiving one or more drugs according to Beers Criteria 2015.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional prospective analysis of 451 inpatients admitted between September 25 and October 25, 2016, was conducted in Near East University Hospital, Northern Cyprus. Data were extracted from the patient medical records using special forms.

Results:

A total of 119 elderly patients were identified (26.4%) and evaluated, of which 107 were eligible and 12 were excluded. Of the 1039 prescribed medicines, 16.9% were PIMs during hospitalization, whereas 12% were at discharge. The most prevalent PIM group during hospitalization was identified as the “medications to be avoided in older adults” (48.8%), whereas it also formed 52% of medications prescribed at discharge. PIMs of the class “drugs used with caution” formed 19.4% of prescribed medicine during hospitalization and 18.4% on discharge. The prevalence of polypharmacy was 79.4%, mainly identified as unpreventable polypharmacy of elders.

Conclusion:

A significantly higher prevalence of PIMs was observed in hospitalized patients than those discharged, with high prevalence of polypharmacy. These results necessitate a nationwide assessment, and responsible bodies who adopt strategies should act to reduce or overcome the aforementioned high prevalence in Northern Cyprus.

Prescription of potentially inappropriate medications to older adults. A nationwide survey at dispensing pharmacies in Japan

OBJECTIVES

Prescriptions to older adults were surveyed to elucidate factors associated with potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) in Japan.

METHODS

Adults aged ≥65 years, who were prescribed medications at 585 dispensing pharmacies across Japan, participated (N = 180,673). Data were collected between October 1 and October 31, 2014.

RESULTS

Proportion of polypharmacy and that of PIMs increased with age (p < 0.001). Analgesic drugs were most commonly prescribed for the older adults aged 65-74 years, whereas benzodiazepines were prescribed most commonly for those aged over 75 years. A logistic regression analysis revealed that the increase of PIMs was explained by polypharmacy and mainly the use of central nervous systems (CNS) and psychotropic drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

The increased prevalence of polypharmacy with age and the common use of CNS and psychotropic medications account for the PIMs in old age in the current nationwide survey.

What is polypharmacy? A systematic review of definitions

BACKGROUND

Multimorbidity and the associated use of multiple medicines (polypharmacy), is common in the older population. Despite this, there is no consensus definition for polypharmacy. A systematic review was conducted to identify and summarise polypharmacy definitions in existing literature.

METHODS

The reporting of this systematic review conforms to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist. MEDLINE (Ovid), EMBASE and Cochrane were systematically searched, as well as grey literature, to identify articles which defined the term polypharmacy (without any limits on the types of definitions) and were in English, published between 1st January 2000 and 30th May 2016. Definitions were categorised as i. numerical only (using the number of medications to define polypharmacy), ii. numerical with an associated duration of therapy or healthcare setting (such as during hospital stay) or iii. Descriptive (using a brief description to define polypharmacy).

RESULTS

A total of 1156 articles were identified and 110 articles met the inclusion criteria. Articles not only defined polypharmacy but associated terms such as minor and major polypharmacy. As a result, a total of 138 definitions of polypharmacy and associated terms were obtained. There were 111 numerical only definitions (80.4% of all definitions), 15 numerical definitions which incorporated a duration of therapy or healthcare setting (10.9%) and 12 descriptive definitions (8.7%). The most commonly reported definition of polypharmacy was the numerical definition of five or more medications daily (n = 51, 46.4% of articles), with definitions ranging from two or more to 11 or more medicines. Only 6.4% of articles classified the distinction between appropriate and inappropriate polypharmacy, using descriptive definitions to make this distinction.

CONCLUSIONS

Polypharmacy definitions were variable. Numerical definitions of polypharmacy did not account for specific comorbidities present and make it difficult to assess safety and appropriateness of therapy in the clinical setting.

Prescribing in the oldest old inpatients: a retrospective analysis of patients referred for specialist geriatric consultation

BACKGROUND

While medications may prolong life and prevent morbidity in older people, adverse effects of polypharmacy are increasingly recognised. As patients age and become frail, prescribing may be expected to focus more on symptom control and minimise potentially harmful preventive medication use that confer little benefit within a short lifespan. Whether prescribing practice shifts to one of symptom controls among the oldest old admitted to hospital remains unclear.

AIM

To determine, in the oldest old inpatients, whether preventive versus symptom control medication prescribing was associated with age or level of frailty.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of all patients aged ≥85 years referred for comprehensive geriatric assessment at a tertiary care hospital between May 2006 and December 2014 for whom all prescribed medications were documented. Medication use was assessed according to age group (85-89, 90-94, ≥95) and categories of frailty index calculated for patients based on 52 deficits (fitter, moderately frail, frail and severely frail).

RESULTS

Seven hundred and eighty-three inpatients were assessed of mean (SD) age 89.0 (3.4) and mean frailty index 0.45 (SD 0.14) with a median of eight co-morbidities (IQR 6-10) and who were prescribed a mean of 8.3 (SD 3.8) regular medications per day. Polypharmacy (5-9 medications per day) was observed in 406 patients (51.9%) and hyper-polypharmacy (≥10 medications per day) in 268 patients (34.2%). While there was a significant decrease in number of prescribed medications as age increased, there were no differences across age groups or frailty categories in proportions of medications used for prevention versus symptom control.

CONCLUSION

Polypharmacy is prevalent in oldest old inpatients and prescribing patterns according to prevention versus symptom control appear unaffected by age and frailty status.

[Routes of nutrition and types of diet among dependent community-dwelling older care recipients and the relevance to mortality and hospitalization]

AIM

To clarify the routes of nutrition and types of diet and their relevance to the risk of mortality and hospitalization among community-dwelling dependent elderly provided various home care services under the long-term care insurance program.

METHODS

The present study consisted of the collection of baseline data of participants in the Nagoya Longitudinal Study of the Frail Elderly (NLS-FE) and data regarding mortality and hospitalization during a three-year follow-up period. The study population consisted of 1,872 subjects, and the baseline data included demographic characteristics, basic activities of daily living (ADLs), comorbidities, nutritional routes and types of diet, which were evaluated by trained visiting nurses.

RESULTS

Among the participants, 1,786 were on oral nutrition (solid regular-texture diet: 1,487 (79.5%); modified-texture diet (minced/pureed texture): 299 (16.0%), 82 (4.4%) were on enteral nutrition and four (0.2%) were on parenteral nutrition. During the three-year follow-up period, 453 participants died and 798 participants experienced admission to the hospital (pneumonia-related death and hospitalization: n=103 and 155, respectively). Cox regression models revealed that a modified-texture diet and tube feeding are associated with all-cause mortality and hospitalization. In particular, feeding tube use showed a high risk of pneumonia-related mortality and hospitalization, even after adjusting for potential confounders, including comorbidities and the ADL status.

Systematic age-related differences in chronic disease management in a population-based cohort study: a new paradigm of primary care is required

Background

Our interest in chronic conditions is due to the fact that, worldwide, chronic diseases have overtaken infectious diseases as the leading cause of death and disability, so their management represents an important challenge for health systems. The aim of this study was to compare the performance of primary health care services in managing diabetes, congestive heart failure (CHF) and coronary heart disease (CHD), by age group.

Methods

This population-based retrospective cohort study was conducted in Italy, enrolling 1,948,622 residents ≥16 years old. A multilevel regression model was applied to analyze compliance to care processes with explanatory variables at both patient and district level, using age group as an independent variable, and adjusting for sex, citizenship, disease duration, and Charlson index on the first level, and for District Health Unit on the second level.

Results

The quality of chronic disease management showed an inverted U-shaped relationship with age. In particular, our findings indicate lower levels for young adults (16–44 year-olds), adults (45–64), and oldest old (+85) than for patients aged 65–74 in almost all quality indicators of CHD, CHF and diabetes management. Young adults (16–44 y), adults (45–64 y), the very old (75–84 y) and the oldest old (+85 y) patients with CHD, CHF and diabetes are less likely than 65–74 year-old patients to be monitored and treated using evidence-based therapies, with the exceptions of echocardiographic monitoring for CHF in young adult patients, and renal monitoring for CHF and diabetes in the very old.

Conclusion

Our study shows that more effort is needed to ensure that primary health care systems are sensitive to chronic conditions in the young and in the very elderly.

Drug expenditure of high-cost patients and their characteristics in Finland

BACKGROUND

Little information exists on how constantly growing pharmaceutical expenditures are distributed in large representative samples of national populations in Western countries.

OBJECTIVE

This study analyzes the distribution of pharmaceutical expenditures in ambulatory care and explores the basic characteristics of the high-cost drug users.

METHOD

Reimbursed prescription drug purchases in 2009 were derived from the National Prescription Register for a 50% sample of the adult Finnish population. The high-cost users who were among the top 5% in terms of drug expenditures were identified based on annual drug costs.

RESULTS

The distribution of pharmaceutical costs is strongly skewed in Finland; only 5% of the population accounts for about half of the costs. These high-cost drug users were older than the low-cost drug users, with more than one-fourth of them being over 75 years old. The high-cost drug users used, on average, more drugs than the low-cost drug users, but approximately 15% of them used only 1-5 drugs. Almost 50% of the high-cost drug users used more than 10 drugs per year. They had chronic diseases more often than the low-cost drug users, especially uremia requiring dialysis, post-transplant conditions, severe anemia associated with chronic renal failure and multiple sclerosis were common among the high-cost users.

CONCLUSION

The skewness of the cost distribution indicates a need for more patient-specific cost-containment methods, and the high number of drugs in the high-cost group calls for exploring the possibilities of disease management and patient monitoring techniques in cost containment.

Polypharmacy and the role of physical medicine and rehabilitation

Polypharmacy and inappropriate prescribing practices lead to higher rates of mortality and morbidity, particularly in vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and those with complex medical conditions. Physical medicine and physiatrists face particular challenges given the array of symptoms treated across a spectrum of conditions. This clinical review focuses on polypharmacy and the associated issue of potentially inappropriate prescribing. The article begins with a review of polypharmacy along with relevant aspects of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in the elderly. The adverse effects and potential hazards of selected medications commonly initiated and managed by rehabilitation specialists are then discussed with specific attention to pain medications, neurostimulants, antipsychotics, antidepressants, antispasmodics, sleep medications, and antiepileptics. Of particular concern is the notion that an adverse effect of one medication can mimic an indication for another and lead to a prescribing cascade and further adverse medication events. Appropriate prescribing practices mandate an accurate, current medication list, yet errors and inaccuracies often plague such lists. The evidence to support explicit (medications to avoid) and implicit (how to evaluate) criteria is presented along with the role of physicians and patients in prescribing medications. A brief discussion of "medication debridement" or de-prescribing strategies follows. In the last section, we draw on the essence of physiatry as a team-based endeavor to discuss the potential benefits of collaboration. In working to optimize medication prescribing, efforts should be made to collaborate not only with pharmacists and other medical specialties but with members of inpatient rehabilitation teams as well.

Clinical pharmacology in old persons

The epidemiological transition, with a rapid increase in the proportion in the global population aged over 65 years from 11% in 2010 to 22% in 2050 and 32% in 2100, represents a challenge for public health. More and more old persons have multimorbidities and are treated with a large number of medicines. In advanced age, the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of many drugs are altered. In addition, pharmacotherapy may be complicated by difficulties with obtaining drugs or adherence and persistence with drug regimens. Safe and effective pharmacotherapy remains one of the greatest challenges in geriatric medicine. In this paper, the main principles of geriatric pharmacology are presented.

Impact of comorbidity on medication use in elderly patients with cardiovascular diseases: the OCTOCARDIO study

BACKGROUND

Recommended medications are under-prescribed in elderly patients with atrial fibrillation (AF), coronary artery disease (CAD), and congestive heart failure (CHF). The relationship between under-prescribing and comorbidity is unclear.

DESIGN

Single-day observational study.

METHODS

Analysis of medications taken by patients aged 80 years or over at the time of their admission to cardiology units of 32 French hospitals. Comorbidity was measured using the Charlson comorbidity index (CCI).

RESULTS

The study included 510 patients (57% men, mean age 85 years). History of AF, CHF, and CAD was present in 213 (42%), 199 (39%), and 187 (37%) patients, respectively. CCI was 0 in 110 (22%), 1-2 in 215 (42%), and ≥3 in 185 (36%) patients. Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) were prescribed to 105 (49%) and aspirin to 86 (40%) patients with AF. CCI did not influence VKA prescription but influenced aspirin use, with lower prescription rates in patients with CCI 1-2 than CCI 0 or CCI ≥3 (p = 0.02). In CHF, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) and β-blockers were prescribed to 80 (40%) and 96 (48%) patients, respectively. Rates of prescription of ACEI, β-blockers, statins, and aspirin in patients with CAD were 43%, 56%, 56%, and 66%, respectively. CCI level did not influence any medication use in CHF and CAD.

CONCLUSION

Even in the absence of comorbidity, elderly patients with major cardiovascular diseases are denied from indicated medical treatments probably because of their age alone. Implementing measures to enhance awareness of treatment benefits and promote appropriate prescribing is necessary.

Functional decline associated with polypharmacy and potentially inappropriate medications in community-dwelling older adults with dementia

This study provides empirical evidence on whether polypharmacy and potentially inappropriate prescription medications (PIRx, as defined by the 2003 Beers criteria) increase the likelihood of functional decline among community-dwelling older adults with dementia. Data were from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center, Uniform Data Set (9/2005-9/2009). Study sample included 1994 community-dwelling participants aged ≥65 with dementia at baseline. Results showed that participants having ≥5 medications were more likely to have functional decline than participants having <5 medications. However, the increased likelihood was only apparent in participants who did not have PIRx. Instead of magnifying the associated risk as hypothesized, PIRx appeared to have a protective effect albeit marginally statistically significant. Therefore, increased medication burden may be associated with functional decline in community-dwelling older adults with dementia who are not prescribed with PIRx. More research is needed to understand which classes of medications have the most deleterious effect on this population.

Day-care service use is a risk factor for long-term care placement in community-dwelling dependent elderly

AIMS

To identify predictors of long-term care placement and to examine the effect of day-care service use on long-term care placement over a 36-month follow-up period among community-dwelling dependent elderly.

METHODS

This study was a prospective cohort analysis of 1739 community-dwelling elderly and 1442 caregivers registered in the Nagoya Longitudinal Study for Frail Elderly. Data included the clients' demographic characteristics, basic activities of daily living, comorbidities, and use of home care services, including the day-care, visiting nurse, and home-help services, as well as caregivers' demographic characteristics and care burden. Analysis of long-term care placement over 36 month was conducted using Kaplan-Meier curves and multivariate Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

Among the 1739 participants, 217 were institutionalized at long-term care facilities during the 36-month follow-up. Multivariate Cox regression models, adjusted for potential confounders, showed that day-care service use was significantly associated with an elevated risk for long-term care placement within the 36-month follow-up period. Participants using a day-care service two or more times/week had significantly higher relative hazard ratios than participants not using such a service.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the need for effective measures to reduce the long-term care placement of day-care service users. Policy makers and practitioners must consider implementing multidimensional support programs to reduce the caregivers' willingness to consider long-term care placement.

Impact of caregiver burden on adverse health outcomes in community-dwelling dependent older care recipients

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether caregiver burden is associated with subsequent all-cause mortality or hospitalization among dependent community-dwelling older care recipients.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study of 1,067 pairs of community-dwelling 65-year-old or older care recipients and their informal caregivers was conducted. The 1,067 pairs completed the baseline assessment including caregiver burden assessed by the Zarit Burden Interview and a 3-year follow-up for all-cause mortality and hospitalization.

RESULTS

During the 3-year follow-up, 268 recipients died and 455 were admitted to hospitals. The multivariate Cox proportional hazards model revealed that the recipients with caregivers with a baseline ZBI score in the highest quartile were 1.54 and 1.51 times more likely to show increased risks of all-cause mortality and hospitalization, respectively, in comparison with those with caregivers in the lowest quartile after adjustment for potential confounders. The highest quartile of caregiver burden was associated with all-cause mortality and hospitalization within nonusers of respite services including day-care services, home-help services, and nursing-home respite stay services. No apparent association was observed within the users of these services except for day-care services, for which users showed a statistically significant association between the highest quartile and the risk of hospitalization.

CONCLUSIONS

Heavy caregiver burden is associated with mortality and hospitalization among community-dwelling dependent older adults, even after adjusting for potential confounders. The reduction of caregiver burden and improvement of caregiver well-being may not only prevent the deterioration of caregiver health but also reduce adverse health outcomes for care recipients.

Association of polypharmacy with nutritional status, functional ability and cognitive capacity over a three-year period in an elderly population

PURPOSE

To determine the association of polypharmacy with nutritional status, functional ability and cognitive capacity among elderly persons.

METHODS

This was a prospective cohort study of 294 survivors from the population-based Geriatric Multidisciplinary Strategy for the Good Care of the Elderly (GeMS) Study, with yearly follow-ups during 2004 to 2007. Participants were the citizens of Kuopio, Finland, aged 75 years and older at baseline. Polypharmacy status was categorized as non-polypharmacy (0-5 drugs), polypharmacy (6-9 drugs) and excessive polypharmacy (10+ drugs). A linear mixed model approach was used for analysis the impact of polypharmacy on short form of mini nutritional assessment (MNA-SF), instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) and mini-mental status examination (MMSE) scores.

RESULTS

Excessive polypharmacy was associated with declined nutritional status (p = 0.001), functional ability (p < 0.001) and cognitive capacity (p < 0.001) when compared to non-polypharmacy group. Age, institutional living, poor self-reported health and time of measuring were also associated with the three outcome measures. In the excessive polypharmacy group, the proportion of malnourished or at risk of it increased from 31% to 50%, having difficulties in daily tasks from 48% to 74% and impaired cognition from 36% to 54% during the follow-up. The mixed model analysis revealed that polypharmacy status was not able to predict the progress of MNA-SF, IADL and MMSE scores over a three-year time.

CONCLUSIONS

Excessive polypharmacy is associated with decline in nutritional status, functional ability and cognitive capacity in elderly persons. However, the changes in nutrition, physical functionality and cognition over a three-year period cannot be predicted by polypharmacy status.

Changes in under-treatment after comprehensive geriatric assessment: an observational study

BACKGROUND

Under-treatment is frequently present in geriatric patients. Because this patient group often suffer from multiple diseases, polypharmacy (defined as the concomitant chronic use of five or more drugs) and contraindications to indicated drugs may also frequently be present.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the prevalence of under-treatment with respect to frequently indicated medications before and after comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) and the prevalence of contraindications to these medications.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The geriatric outpatients evaluated in this study had previously been included in a prospective descriptive study conducted in 2004. Demographic data, medical history, co-morbidity and medication use and changes were documented. The absence of drugs indicated for frequently under-treated conditions before and after CGA was compared. Under-treatment was defined as omission of drug therapy indicated for the treatment or prevention of 13 established diseases or conditions known to be frequently under-treated. Co-morbid conditions were independently classified by two geriatricians, who determined whether or not a condition represented a contraindication to use of these drugs.

RESULTS

In 2004, 807 geriatric outpatients were referred for CGA. Of these, 548 patients had at least one of the 13 selected diseases or conditions. Thirty-two of these patients were excluded from the analysis, leaving 516 patients. Before CGA, 170 of these patients were under-treated (32.9%); after CGA, 115 patients (22.3%) were under-treated. Contraindications were present in 102 of the patients (19.8%) and were more frequent in under-treated patients. After CGA, mean drug use and the prevalence of polypharmacy increased. Although 393 drugs were discontinued after CGA, the overall number of drugs used increased from 3177 before CGA to 3424 after CGA. Five times more drugs were initiated for a new diagnosis than for correction of under-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Under-treatment is significantly reduced after CGA. Patients with contraindications to indicated medicines are more frequently under-treated. CGA leads to an increase in polypharmacy, mainly because of new conditions being diagnosed and despite frequent discontinuation of medications.

[Investigation of whether depressive status contributes to mortality and hospitalization in community-dwelling dependent older people]

AIM

In our aging society, the number of community-dwelling dependent elderly people is increasing. Many studies have shown that depression influences the health of older persons. In the present study, we examined whether depressive status is associated with mortality and hospitalization in community-dwelling dependent older people during a 3-year follow-up period.

METHODS

This study was a prospective cohort analysis of 1,409 community-dwelling disabled elderly (489 men, 920 women; average age 80.1, the Nagoya Longitudinal Study for Frail Elderly). Data included demographic characteristics, basic activities of daily living (ADL) scores, comorbidity, and depressive status as assessed by the short version of the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) at baseline. The participants were considered to have depression or severe depression if their GDS-15 score was 6-10 or above 10, respectively. The Cox proportional hazard model and the Kaplan-Meier method were used to assess any association with depressive status at baseline with mortality or hospitalization during a 3-year period.

RESULTS

During a 3-year observation, 284 participants died (53 at home, 231 at hospital), and 576 were admitted to hospitals. Univariate analysis revealed that the depressive status of participants was associated with mortality and hospitalization during a 3-year follow up. However, multivariate models used to adjust for potential confounders including gender, age, ADL status, and comorbidity, did not show any association between depressive status and mortality and hospitalization.

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive status among community-dwelling disabled elderly was not associated with mortality or hospitalization in the present series.

A cross-sectional analysis of the prevalence of undertreatment of nonpain symptoms and factors associated with undertreatment in older nursing home hospice/palliative care patients

BACKGROUND

Approximately 25% of all US deaths occur in the long-term care setting, and this figure is projected to rise to 40% by the year 2040. Currently, there is limited information on nonpain symptoms and their appropriate treatment in this setting at the end of life.

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the prevalence of undertreatment of nonpain symptoms and factors associated with undertreatment in older nursing home hospice/palliative care patients.

METHODS

This study used a cross-sectional sample of older (>or=65 years) hospice/palliative care patients to represent all patients from the 2004 National Nursing Home Survey (NNHS) funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nonpain symptoms were determined from facility staff, who used the medical records to answer questions about the residents. Data on medication use were derived from medication administration records. Undertreatment was defined as the omission of a necessary medication for a specific nonpain symptom and was evaluated as a dichotomous variable (yes = the nonpain symptom was not treated with a medication; no = the nonpain symptom was treated with a medication). Cross-sectional bivariate analyses were conducted using chi(2) and regression coefficient tests to determine factors potentially associated with undertreatment of nonpain symptoms.

RESULTS

The cross-sectional sample included 303 older nursing home hospice/palliative care patients from among the 33,413 (weighted) patients from the 2004 NNHS. Overall, most of the patients were white (91.4% [277/303]) and female (71.9% [218/303]), and nearly half were aged >or=85 years (47.9% [145/303]). One or more nonpain symptoms occurred in 82 patients (22.0% weighted). The most common nonpain symptoms (weighted percentages) were constipation/fecal impaction in 35 patients (8.8%), cough in 34 patients (9.2%), nausea/vomiting in 26 patients (7.2%), fever in 11 patients (3.1%), and diarrhea in 9 patients (1.9%). Medication undertreatment of any of the above symptoms was seen in 47 of 82 patients (60.0% weighted), ranging from a low of 26.4% for constipation/ fecal impaction to a high of 88.0% for nausea/vomiting. Undertreated patients had significantly more problems with bed mobility (n [weighted %], 43 [92.3%] vs 21 [67.2%]; P = 0.013), mood (21 [44.7%] vs 7 [19.7%]; P = 0.017), and pressure ulcers (12 [25.7%] vs 2 [6.1%]; P = 0.023) than did treated patients. The undertreated group also had a significantly greater number of secondary diagnoses (weighted mean [SD], 6.5 [0.7] vs 5.2 [0.5]; P = 0.004) but had a shorter length of stay in hospice/ palliative care (120.5 [20.1] vs 219.4 [51.8] days; P < 0.001) or in the nursing home (552.0 [96.5] vs 1285.4 [268.3] days; P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of nonpain symptoms was low (22.0% weighted) in older nursing home hospice/palliative care patients. However, medication undertreatment of nonpain symptoms was seen in more than half of these patients. Future quality-improvement initiatives for nursing home hospice/palliative care patients are needed beyond the management of pain symptoms.

Polypharmacy status as an indicator of mortality in an elderly population

BACKGROUND

Increased use of drugs has raised concern about the risks of polypharmacy in elderly populations. Adverse outcomes, such as hospitalizations and falls, have been shown to be associated with polypharmacy. So far, little information is available on the association between polypharmacy status and mortality.

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether polypharmacy (six to nine drugs) or excessive polypharmacy (ten or more drugs) could be indicators of mortality in elderly persons.

METHODS

This was a population-based cohort study conducted between 1998 and 2003 with mortality follow-up through to 2007. The data in this study were derived from the population-based Kuopio 75+ Study, which involved elderly persons aged>or=75 years living in the city of Kuopio, Finland. The initial sample (sample frame n=4518, random sample n=700) was drawn from the population register. For the purpose of this study, two separate analyses were carried out. In the first phase, participants (aged>or=75 years, n=601) were followed from 1998 (baseline) to 2002. In the second phase, survivors (aged>or=80 years, n=339) were followed from 2003 to 2007. Current medications were determined from drug containers and prescriptions during interviews conducted by a trained nurse. The Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional hazards regression were used to examine the association between polypharmacy status and mortality.

RESULTS

In the first phase, 28% (n=167) belonged to the excessive polypharmacy group, 33% (n=200) to the polypharmacy group, and the remaining 39% (n=234) to the non-polypharmacy (0-5 drugs) group. The corresponding figures in the second phase were 28% (n=95), 39% (n=132) and 33% (n=112), respectively. The mortality rate was 37% in the first phase and 40% in the second phase. In both phases, the survival curves showed a significant difference in all-cause mortality between the three polypharmacy groups. In the first phase, the univariate model showed an association between excessive polypharmacy and mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 2.53, 95% CI 1.83, 3.48); however, after adjustment for demographics and other variables measuring functional and cognitive status, this association did not remain statistically significant (HR 1.28, 95% CI 0.86, 1.91). In the second phase, the association between excessive polypharmacy and mortality (HR 2.23, 95% CI 1.21, 4.12) remained significant after adjustments. Age, male sex and dependency according to the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living screening instrument were associated with mortality in both phases.

CONCLUSION

This study points to the importance of excessive polypharmacy as an indicator for mortality in elderly persons. This association needs to be confirmed following adjustment for co-morbidities.

Impact of informal care levels on discontinuation of living at home in community-dwelling dependent elderly using various community-based services

The aim of the study was to examine the effect of informal care levels on overall discontinuation of living at home, all-cause death, hospital admission, and long-term care placement for community-dwelling older people using various community-based services during a 3-year period. Prospective cohort study of 1582 community-dwelling disabled elderly and paired informal caregivers was conducted. Baseline data included the recipients and caregivers' demographic characteristics, comorbidities, informal care levels (sufficient, moderate, and insufficient care), which were evaluated by trained visiting nurses, and the level of formal community-based service use. Among 1582 participants, 97 died at home, 692 were admitted to hospitals, 318 died during their hospital stay, and 117 were institutionalized in long-term care facilities during 3 years of follow-up. A multivariate Cox hazard model demonstrated that when compared with a sufficient informal care level, an insufficient informal care level was associated with overall discontinuation of living at home, all-cause mortality, hospitalization, and institutionalization during 3 years of follow-up (hazard ratio: 1.65, 95% confidence interval: 1.15-2.36; 1.98, 1.17-3.34; 1.56, 1.04-2.35; 2.93, 1.25-6.86, respectively). The results suggested that informal caregiving is an important factor in the prevention of overall discontinuation of living at home in a population of disabled older people.

Underuse of indicated medications among physically frail older US veterans at the time of hospital discharge: results of a cross-sectional analysis of data from the Geriatric Evaluation and Management Drug Study

BACKGROUND

Medication underutilization, or the omission of a potentially beneficial medication indicated for disease management, is common among older adults but poorly understood.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this work were to assess the prevalence of medication underuse and to determine whether polypharmacy or comorbidity was associated with medication underuse among physically frail older veterans transitioning from the hospital to the community.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analysis of patients who were discharged from 11 US veterans' hospitals to outpatient care, based on data from the Geriatric Evaluation and Management Drug Study, a substudy of the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study of geriatric evaluation and management. Patients were enrolled between August 31, 1995, and January 31, 1999. To qualify for the study, patients had to be aged > or =65 years, hospitalized in a medical or surgical ward for >48 hours, and meet > or =2 of the following criteria: moderate functional disability; recent cerebrovascular accident with residual neurological deficit; history of > or =1 fall in the previous 3 months; documented difficulty with walking (ie, requiring personal assistance or equipment), not including preadmission use of a wheelchair with ability to transfer to and from chair independently; malnutrition (admission serum albumin of 3.5 g/dL, <80% of ideal body weight, or recent > or =15-lb weight loss reported in admission history); dementia; depression; documented diagnosis of new fracture or revision needed of older fracture; unplanned admission within 3 months of previous admission; and prolonged bed rest. Clinical pharmacist/physician pairs reviewed medical records and medication lists and independently applied the Assessment of Underutilization (AOU) index to determine omissions of indicated medications. Discordances in index ratings were resolved during clinical consensus conferences. The primary outcome measure was the percentage of patients with > or =1 medication omission detected by the AOU. Multivariable logistic regression analyses identified factors associated with underuse.

RESULTS

A total of 384 patients were included in the study. The majority (53.6%) were between the ages of 65 and 74 years, and the mean (SD) Charlson comorbidity index was 2.44 (1.93). Overall, 374 patients (97.4%) were men and 274 (71.4%) were white. Medication undertreatment occurred in 238 participants (62.0%). Diseases of the Accepted for publication October 26, 2009. circulatory, endocrine/nutritional, musculoskeletal, and respiratory systems were the most commonly undertreated conditions. The indicated medications most likely to be omitted were nitrates for those with a history of myocardial infarction, multivitamins in those with malnutrition, and inhaled anticholinergics for chronic obstructive airways disease. Statistically significant factors associated with medication underuse included limitations in activities of daily living (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.17 [95% CI, 1.27-3.71]; P = 0.01), being white (AOR, 1.70 [95% CI, 1.06-2.71]; P = 0.03), and Charlson comorbidity index (AOR, 1.13 for each 1-point increase [95% CI, 1.00-1.27]; P = 0.04). Discharge from a general medicine service as opposed to a surgical service was associated with lower risk of medication underuse (AOR, 0.61 [95% CI, 0.38-0.98]; P = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Medication underuse was relatively common in this study. Patients with greater comorbidity, but not polypharmacy, had increased odds of undertreatment.

[Gender difference characteristics in the sociodemographic background of care recipients]

AIM

We compared gender differences in the sociodemographic characteristics of community-dwelling dependent elderly who use various community-based services under long-term care insurance programs, as well as in mortality, hospitalization, and institutionalization during a 3-year follow-up period.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study using the baseline data of 1,875 care recipients from the Nagoya Longitudinal Study for Frail Elderly (NLS-FE), and a prospective study using their 3-year follow-up data. The data, which were collected at the patients' homes or from care-managing center records, included the clients' and caregivers' demographic characteristics, living arrangements, community-based services used, depression as assessed by the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15), a rating for basic activities of daily living (ADL), and comorbidities. The data included, at 3-year follow-up, all-cause mortality, hospitalization, and institutionalization.

RESULTS

Among 1,875 care recipients 66.3% were women. They had a higher rate of living alone (26.2% vs 14.6% in men), and a lower rate of receiving care by a spouse (22.1% vs. 73.6% of men). Although there were no differences in ADL levels or GDS-15 scores between genders, a higher Charlson comorbidity index, higher prevalence of cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cancer were observed in the male care recipients. Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated that during the 3-year follow-up, higher mortality, hospitalization, and lower institutionalization rates were observed in men.

CONCLUSION

We observed that two thirds of care recipients were women. Compared with male recipients, female recipients were more likely to live alone, and to be cared for by non-spouse caregivers. Lower mortality and hospitalization, but higher institutionalization, were observed in female recipients.

The longitudinal change in anthropometric measurements and the association with physical function decline in Japanese community-dwelling frail elderly

Although anthropometric parameters have been extensively studied regarding their relationship to physical function status, the association between these parameters and the activity of daily living (ADL) function remains controversial. We investigated whether BMI or mid-upper arm circumference (AC) is an indication of variation in the physical functioning of the frail elderly. The present study was a prospective cohort analysis of 543 community-dwelling frail elderly. Data included the participants' demographic characteristics, basic ADL, comorbidity and anthropometric measurements at baseline and at 2-year follow-up. Logistic regression models were used to investigate the association between ADL status and anthropometric measurements during the study period. Among the 543 participants, 418 maintained or improved their ADL status, while 125 showed an ADL decline during the study period. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that BMI and AC levels or ADL status at baseline were not independent predictors of the loss of ADL function or the decline in these anthropometric measurements during the study period, respectively. However, the decline in BMI and AC levels and the loss of ADL function were associated with each other during the study period. There is an association between the negative changes in anthropometric measurements during the follow-up period and the decline in ADL function during a 2-year follow-up in community-dwelling frail elderly.

Patterns of drug use and factors associated with polypharmacy and excessive polypharmacy in elderly persons: results of the Kuopio 75+ study: a cross-sectional analysis

BACKGROUND

Although the increasing use of drugs in elderly persons has raised many concerns in recent years, the process leading to polypharmacy (PP) and excessive polypharmacy (EPP) remains largely unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the number and type of drugs used and to evaluate the role of different factors associated with PP (i.e. 6-9 drugs) and EPP (i.e. > or =10 drugs), with special reference to the number and type of medical diagnoses and symptoms, in a population of home-dwelling elderly persons aged > or =75 years.

METHODS

The study was a cross-sectional analysis of a population-based cohort in 1998. The population consisted of home-dwelling elderly persons aged > or =75 years in the city of Kuopio, Finland. The data for the analysis were obtained from the Kuopio 75+ Study, which drew a random sample of 700 elderly residents aged > or =75 years living in the city of Kuopio from the population register. Of these, 601 attended a structured clinical examination and an interview carried out by a geriatrician and a trained nurse in 1998. For this analysis, all home-dwelling elderly participants (n = 523) were included. Study data were expressed as proportions and means with standard deviations. The factors associated with PP and EPP were examined by multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

The most commonly used drugs were cardiovascular drugs (97% in EPP, 94% in PP and 59% in non-PP group) and analgesics (89%, 76% and 54%), respectively. Use of psychotropics was markedly higher in the EPP group (77%) than in the PP (42%) and non-PP groups (20%). The mean number of drugs per diagnosis was 3.6 in the EPP group, 2.6 in the PP group and 1.6 in the non-PP group. Factors associated only with EPP were moderate self-reported health (odds ratio [OR] 2.05; 95% CI 1.08, 3.89), female gender (OR 2.43; 95% CI 1.27, 4.65) and age > or =85 years (OR 2.84; 95% CI 1.41, 5.72). Factors that were associated with both PP and EPP included poor self-reported health (PP: OR 2.15; 95% CI 1.01, 4.59 and EPP: OR 6.02; 95% CI 2.55, 14.20), diabetes mellitus (PP: OR 2.28; 95% CI 1.26, 4.15 and EPP: OR 2.07; 95% CI 1.03, 4.18), depression (PP: OR 2.13; 95% CI 1.16, 3.90 and EPP: OR 2.93; 95% CI 1.51, 5.66), pain (PP: OR 2.69; 95% CI 1.68, 4.30 and EPP: OR 2.74; 95% CI 1.56, 4.82), heart disease (PP: OR 2.51; 95% CI 1.54, 4.08 and EPP: OR 4.63; 95% CI 2.45, 8.74) and obstructive pulmonary disease (including asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) [PP: OR 2.79; 95% CI 1.24, 6.25 and EPP: OR 6.82; 95% CI 2.87, 16.20].

CONCLUSION

The study indicates that the factors associated with PP and EPP are not uniform. Age > or =85 years, female gender and moderate self-reported health were factors associated only with EPP, while poor self-reported health and several specific disease states were associated with both PP and EPP. The high number of drugs per diagnosis observed in this study calls for a thorough assessment of the need for and outcomes associated with use of these drugs.

Polypharmacy among disabled Taiwanese elderly: a longitudinal observational study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

It is not known whether the correlates of polypharmacy among disabled elderly are similar to those for older adults in general. Furthermore, data on polypharmacy in the Taiwanese population are limited. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the prevalence and correlates of polypharmacy among disabled Taiwanese elderly (aged >or=65 years).

METHODS

This was a longitudinal observational study conducted on information obtained between July 2001 and June 2002. Study participants consisted of nationally representative samples of 11,788 disabled Taiwanese elderly from the ANLTCNT (Assessment of National Long-Term Care Need in Taiwan) study. Polypharmacy and major polypharmacy were defined as prescription of >or=5 and >or=10 medications, respectively, on the day of maximum numbers of prescriptions of the study year. Subject characteristics were derived from the ANLTCNT study survey data. Healthcare-related characteristics, including medication prescriptions, were obtained from the National Health Insurance (NHI) claims data. Multivariate logistic regression was performed for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

One-fifth (21.5%) of the sample were aged >or=85 years, and 58% were female. The prevalence of polypharmacy and major polypharmacy among disabled Taiwanese elderly was 81% and 38%, respectively. Nearly one-third (32.5%) of disabled Taiwanese elderly were exposed to polypharmacy for >or=181 days in 1 year. Compared with those with a low tendency for visiting multiple providers, those with intermediate tendency (odds ratio [OR] 3.61; 95% CI 3.11, 4.18) and those with high tendency (OR 10.24; 95% CI 8.56, 12.24) were more likely to be exposed to polypharmacy. Other significant correlates of polypharmacy in the multivariate logistic regression model included age <85 years, living in urban areas, higher number of chronic conditions, poorer physical functioning, preference for visiting independent clinics and not being institutionalized.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of polypharmacy was extremely high among disabled Taiwanese elderly. Visiting multiple healthcare providers was one of the strongest correlates. Policies that encourage the disabled elderly to establish primary care relationships and that promote geriatric care models may decrease the prevalence of polypharmacy and associated adverse outcomes in this group.

Is migration to Sweden associated with increased prevalence of risk factors for cardiovascular disease?

BACKGROUND

[corrected] The proportion of elderly immigrants in Sweden is increasing. This is an important issue considering that the prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a global health problem and that CVD is one of the main causes of morbidity among the elderly. The aim of this study is to analyze whether there is an association between migration status, that is being an elderly Iranian immigrant in Sweden, as compared with being an elderly Iranian in Iran, and the prevalence of risk factors for CVD.

DESIGN

Population-based cross-sectional study with face-to-face interviews.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

A total of 176 Iranians in Stockholm and 300 Iranians in Tehran, aged 60-84 years.

METHODS

The prevalence of general obesity, abdominal obesity, hypertension, smoking, and diabetes was determined. Unconditional logistic regression analysis was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for outcomes.

RESULTS

The age-adjusted risk of hypertension and smoking was higher in Iranian women and men in Sweden. OR for hypertension was 1.9 (95% CI: 1.1-3.2) for women and 3.1 (95% CI: 1.5-6.3) for men and OR for smoking was 6.9 (95% CI: 2.2-21.6) for women and 4.7 (95% CI: 2.0-11.0) for men. The higher risk for hypertension and smoking remained significant after accounting for age, socioeconomic status, and marital status. Abdominal obesity was found in nearly 80% of the women in both groups.

CONCLUSION

The findings show a strong association between migration status and the prevalence of hypertension and smoking. Major recommendation for public health is increased awareness of CVD risk factors among elderly immigrants.

Potentially inappropriate management of depressive symptoms among Ontario home care clients

OBJECTIVE

To examine the prevalence and correlates of potentially inappropriate pharmacotherapy (including potential under-treatment) for depression in adult home care clients.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study of clients receiving services from Community Care Access Centres in Ontario. Three thousand three hundred and twenty-one clients were assessed with the Resident Assessment Instrument for Home Care (RAI-HC). A score of 3 or greater on the Depression Rating Scale (DRS), a validated scale embedded within the RAI-HC, indicates the presence of symptoms of depression. Medications listed on the RAI-HC were used to categorize treatment into two groups: potentially appropriate and potentially inappropriate antidepressant drug therapy. Adjusted logistic regression models were used to explore relevant predictors of potentially inappropriate pharmacotherapy.

RESULTS

12.5% (n=414) of clients had symptoms of depression and 17% received an appropriate antidepressant. Over half of clients (64.5%) received potentially inappropriate pharmacotherapy (including potential under-treatment). Age 75 years or older, higher levels of caregiver stress and the presence of greater comorbidity were associated with a higher risk of potentially inappropriate pharmacotherapy in multivariate analyses. Documentation of any psychiatric diagnosis on the RAI-HC and receiving more medications were significantly associated with a greater likelihood of appropriate drug treatment.

CONCLUSION

Most clients with significant depressive symptoms were not receiving appropriate pharmacotherapy. Having a documented diagnosis of a psychiatric condition on the RAI-HC predicted appropriate pharmacotherapy. By increasing recognition of psychiatric conditions, the use of standardized, comprehensive assessment instruments in home care may represent an opportunity to improve mental health care in these settings.

Association between unmet needs for medication support and all-cause hospitalization in community-dwelling disabled elderly people

OBJECTIVES

To clarify the association between unmet medication management need and 3-year mortality and hospitalization for community-dwelling older people with various levels of disabilities.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study (the Nagoya Longitudinal Study for Frail Elderly).

SETTING

Community-based.

PARTICIPANTS

One thousand seven hundred seventy-two community-dwelling elderly subjects (611 men, 1,161 women).

MEASUREMENTS

Data included the clients' demographic characteristics, a rating for basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs), number of prescribed medications and physician-diagnosed chronic diseases, medication adherence, ability to manage medication, and presence or absence of medication assistance. Cox proportional hazard models and the Kaplan-Meier method were used to assess the association between the medication management at baseline and mortality or hospitalization during a 3-year period.

RESULTS

Of 1,772 participants, 681 reported no difficulty with self-medication management, and 1,091 experienced difficulty with self-medication. Of participants with difficulty with self-medication management, 929 had medication assistance, and 162 did not. During a 3-year follow up, 424 participants died, and 758 were admitted to hospitals. The baseline data demonstrated that participants not receiving medication assistance were younger and had better ADL status and fewer comorbidities. Multivariate Cox regression models adjusting for potential confounders showed that the lack of assistance in those who needed medication assistance was associated with hospitalization but not mortality during the study period.

CONCLUSION

In community-dwelling disabled elderly people, lack of medication assistance in those needing medication support was associated with higher risk of hospitalization.

Anthropometric measurements of mid-upper arm as a mortality predictor for community-dwelling Japanese elderly: The Nagoya Longitudinal Study of Frail Elderly (NLS-FE)

BACKGROUND & AIMS

It remains controversial whether mid-arm anthropometric measurements (MAAMs) are reflected with physical impairment or useful predictors of mortality in the frail elderly. We examined the following hypotheses: (1) MAAMs in frail community-dwelling elderly are lower than those of independent elderly, (2) the lower MAAMs are associated with physical function impairment, and (3) are independent predictors of 2-year mortality.

METHODS

This study was composed of cross-sectional and prospective cohort analyses of 957 community-dwelling elderly. Data included the clients' demographic characteristics, comorbidity, activities of daily living (ADL), and MAAMs at baseline. The mean scores of MAAMs of participants were compared with Japanese Anthropometric Reference Data. Survival analysis of 2-year mortality was conducted using multivariate Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

Significantly lower arm muscle area (AMA) and higher triceps skinfold (TSF) levels were observed in most of the age groups of the study participants than those of the standard Japanese population. ADL function was correlated with AMA but not with TSF, both of which were independent risk factors for 2-year mortality in the participants (highest tertile versus lowest, AMA, HR:2.03, 95%CI:1.36-3.02; TSF, HR:1.89, 95%CI:1.30-2.75).

CONCLUSIONS

AMA and TSF were independent risk factors for 2-year mortality in the community-dwelling frail elderly.

Appropriate prescribing in elderly people: how well can it be measured and optimised?

Prescription of medicines is a fundamental component of the care of elderly people, and optimisation of drug prescribing for this group of patients has become an important public-health issue worldwide. Several characteristics of ageing and geriatric medicine affect medication prescribing for elderly people and render the selection of appropriate pharmacotherapy a challenging and complex process. In the first paper in this series we aim to define and categorise appropriate prescribing in elderly people, critically review the instruments that are available to measure it and discuss their predictive validity, critically review recent randomised controlled intervention studies that assessed the effect of optimisation strategies on the appropriateness of prescribing in elderly people, and suggest directions for future research and practice.

Relationship between polypharmacy and underprescribing

AIMS

Underprescribing is increasingly recognized as an important problem. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between polypharmacy and underprescribing.

METHODS

Treatment of current medical problems in geriatric patients was compared with general practitioner and national guidelines. Underprescription was defined as lack of an indicated drug, while no reason could be found for not prescribing it. Polypharmacy was defined as five or more drugs.

RESULTS

Polypharmacy was present in 61% of 150 patients. Underprescription was found in 47 (31%). Of patients with polypharmacy 42.9% were undertreated, in contrast to 13.5% of patients using four medicines or less (OR 4.8, 95% CI 2.0, 11.2). The estimated probability of underprescription increased significantly with the number of drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a clear relationship between polypharmacy and underprescribing.