Transdermal opioid patches for pain treatment in ancient Greece

Topically Applied Therapies for the Treatment of Skin Disease: Past, Present, and Future

The purpose of this review is to summarize essential biological, pharmaceutical, and clinical aspects in the field of topically applied medicines that may help scientists when trying to develop new topical medicines. After a brief history of topical drug delivery, a review of the structure and function of the skin and routes of drug absorption and their limitations is provided. The most prevalent diseases and current topical treatment approaches are then detailed, the organization of which reflects the key disease categories of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, microbial infections, skin cancers, and genetic skin diseases. The complexity of topical product development through to large-scale manufacturing along with recommended risk mitigation approaches are then highlighted. As such topical treatments are applied externally, patient preferences along with the challenges they invoke are then described, and finally the future of this field of drug delivery is discussed, with an emphasis on areas that are more likely to yield significant improvements over the topical medicines in current use or would expand the range of medicines and diseases treatable by this route of administration. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review of the key aspects of the skin and its associated diseases and current treatments along with the intricacies of topical formulation development should be helpful in making judicious decisions about the development of new or improved topical medicines. These aspects include the choices of the active ingredients, formulations, the target patient population's preferences, limitations, and the future with regard to new skin diseases and topical medicine approaches.

Opiates Possibly Boosted Human Civilization

: Testosterone is a fundamental biological drive for human survival. Evidence documents an association between the evolutionary suppression of testosterone and the civilization processes, especially their socialization and family colonization abilities, among early humans. Interestingly, opiates suppress testosterone as a side effect. However, in clinical practice, clients undergoing opioid substitution therapy have subnormal, normal, or even above-normal testosterone. This paper discusses a possibility indicating that opiates promoted civilization processes among early humans. We further suggest that modern humans might have inherited the positive impact of opiates on early humans as a biological propensity for using opioids. Some users may use opioids for self-medication to decrease their extraordinarily high testosterone levels.

Pharmacies for pain and trauma in ancient Greece

PURPOSE

To summarize pharmacies for pain and trauma in ancient Greece, to present several pharmaceutical/therapeutical methods reported in myths and ancient texts, and to theorize on the medical explanation upon which these pharmacies were used.

METHOD

A thorough literature search was undertaken in PubMed and Google Scholar as well as in physical books in libraries to summarize the pharmacies and pain practices used for trauma in ancient Greece.

RESULTS

Archeological findings and historical texts have revealed that humans have always suffered from diseases and trauma that were initially managed and healed by priests and magicians. In early Greek antiquity, the term pharmacy was related to herbal inquiries, with the occupants called charmers and pharmacists. Additionally, apart from therapeutic methods, ancient Greeks acknowledged the importance of pain therapy and had invented certain remedies for both acute and chronic pain management. With observations and obtaining experience, they used plants, herbs, metals and soil as a therapeutic method, regardless of the cultural level of the population. They achieved sedation and central and peripheral analgesia with opium and cold, as well as relaxation of smooth muscle fibers and limiting secretions with atropina.

CONCLUSION

History showed a lot of experience obtained from empirical testing of pain treatment in ancient people. Experience and reasoning constructed an explanatory account of diseases, therapies and health and have provided for the epistemology of medicine.

Topical treatment in pain medicine: from ancient remedies to modern usage

Over several millennia, substances have been applied to the skin for treatment of pain. Some ingredients are in current use; others have been discontinued. Mechanisms of action include interactions with nociceptive neural networks and inflammatory processes. Substances must penetrate the stratum corneum barrier and vehicles that enhance penetration have been developed. Topical drugs with links to the past include menthol, capsaicin, some opioids, local anesthetic agents and NSAIDs. Mandragora is also described as an example of a herbal remedy that has been discontinued due to its toxicity. The future for topical drugs is promising, with the advent of new drugs tailored for specific pain mechanisms and the development of both penetration enhancers and sterile preparation methods.