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Springer A, Jordan D, Höltershinken M, Barutzki D, Strube C. Endemisation and management of Babesia divergens on a beef production farm. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PARASITOLOGY & VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES 2024; 6:100188. [PMID: 39027083 PMCID: PMC11252781 DOI: 10.1016/j.crpvbd.2024.100188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
The hard tick Ixodes ricinus transmits a variety of zoonotic pathogens, including Babesia divergens, the most common cause of bovine babesiosis in northern Europe. In endemic areas, cattle are rarely clinically affected, as animals up to the age of nine months are resistant against relevant clinical disease and develop protective premunity. However, outbreaks in immunologically naïve herds may lead to considerable losses. Such an outbreak with a high mortality rate occurred in 2018 on a northern German beef production farm, as previously reported. The present study provides an update on the epidemiological situation and management strategy of the farm. In spring 2022, blood samples were taken from 46 animals for PCR and serological testing before pasture turnout. Although no clinical cases had been noticed since 2019, B. divergens DNA was detected by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), followed by amplification and sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene, in 6.5% (3/46) of cattle blood samples. Presence of anti-B. divergens antibodies was confirmed in 26.1% (12/46) of animals, while further 10.9% (5/46) had a borderline antibody titre. The antibody status of 23 of these animals had already been determined in 2018 and/or 2020, revealing fluctuating titre patterns indicative of repeated pathogen exposure. Moreover, 457 questing I. ricinus specimens collected on the farm's pastures and 83 I. ricinus specimens detached from cattle were screened for Babesia spp. DNA by qPCR, followed by 18S rDNA amplification and sequencing. Endemisation of B. divergens was confirmed by 0.9% (4/457) positive questing I. ricinus, while the ticks detached from cattle were Babesia-negative. The farm's management strategy includes annual metaphylactic treatment with imidocarb dipropionate during the main tick exposure period in spring. However, the antibody titre fluctuations and the persistent infections at the end of the housing period indicate that the absence of clinical disease is primarily due to a rising level of premunity. Metaphylactic treatment with imidocarb seems to be a suitable management option to protect newly acquired immunologically naïve animals. The endemisation of B. divergens is also of public health significance, as the pastures are located close to a tourist destination in a popular hiking area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Springer
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Daniela Jordan
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Martin Höltershinken
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173, Hanover, Germany
| | - Dieter Barutzki
- Tierärztliches Labor Freiburg GmbH, Engesserstraße 4b, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christina Strube
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
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Hasle G, Bjune GA, Christensson D, Røed KH, Whist AC, Leinaas HP. Detection of Babesia divergens in southern Norway by using an immunofluorescence antibody test in cow sera. Acta Vet Scand 2010; 52:55. [PMID: 20925923 PMCID: PMC2959048 DOI: 10.1186/1751-0147-52-55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The incidence of bovine babesiosis, caused by Babesia divergens (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida) has decreased markedly since the 1930 s, but may re-emerge as a consequence of climate change and changes in legislation and pasturing practices. This is a potentially serious disease, with both economical and animal welfare consequences. Therefore, there is a need to survey the distribution of B. divergens. METHODS We tested sera from 306 healthy pastured cows from 24 farms along the southern Norwegian coast by using an indirect immunofluorescence IgG antibody test (IFAT). Fractions of seropositive cows were compared by calculating 95% CI. RESULTS The results of this test showed that 27% of the sera were positive for B. divergens antibodies. The fraction of antibody-positive sera that we detected showed a two-humped distribution, with a high fraction of positives being found in municipalities in the western and eastern parts of the study area, while the municipalities between these areas had few or no positive serum samples. CONCLUSIONS Neither the farmers' observations nor the Norwegian Dairy Herd Recording System give an adequate picture of the distribution of bovine babesiosis. Serological testing of cows by using IFAT is a convenient way of screening for the presence of B. divergens in an area.
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Moreau E, Jouglin M, Chauvin A, Malandrin L. Babesia divergens experimental infection of spleen-intact sheep results in long-lasting parasitemia despite a strong humoral response: preliminary results. Vet Parasitol 2009; 166:205-11. [PMID: 19765903 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2009] [Revised: 08/08/2009] [Accepted: 08/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Babesia divergens is an intraerythrocytic Apicomplexa and the main agent of bovine babesiosis in Europe. The infection in cattle develops in 2 phases: an acute phase with hemolytic anemia and a chronic phase with asymptomatic persistence of the parasite for several years. The acute phase of B. divergens infection can be studied using the gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) as a laboratory model but unlike cattle, this animal rapidly eliminates the parasite. An experimental model to study the chronic phase of infection was therefore developed by our laboratory. Spleen-intact sheep, with a potential full immune response, were inoculated with infected red blood cells (iRBC) or with free merozoites, by several routes (intraperitoneal, intravenous or subcutaneously). No clinical signs were ever observed but the installation of a persistent low level infection was shown in sheep with susceptible erythrocytes (able to sustain B. divergens growth in vitro). Neither feature was observed in sheep with non-susceptible erythrocytes. IgG production, involving both IgG1 and IgG2, was mainly directed against the major merozoite surface antigen Bd37, similar to the humoral immune response described in naturally infected cattle. The use of spleen-intact sheep to study the immune response to B. divergens is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Moreau
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, UMR 1300 BioEpAR, ENVN, Atlanpole - La Chantrerie, BP 40706, F-44307 Nantes cedex 03, France.
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Hadj-Kaddour K, Carcy B, Vallet A, Randazzo S, Delbecq S, Kleuskens J, Schetters T, Gorenflot A, Precigout E. Recombinant protein Bd37 protected gerbils against heterologous challenges with isolates ofBabesia divergenspolymorphic for thebd37gene. Parasitology 2006; 134:187-96. [PMID: 17038236 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182006001399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2006] [Revised: 07/26/2006] [Accepted: 07/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The Bd37gene encoding for a glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol anchored protein ofBabesia divergensdisplays genetic polymorphisms among isolates. Five major polymorphic groups (clades) were shown by PCR-RFLP among differentB. divergensisolates. Each group has been characterized according to a reference Bd37 gene (Rouen87, W8843, Y5, 6303E and 1705B). Recombinant (GST fusion) protein (Bd37r) expressed from the Bd37 gene, was used as antigen in a saponin-based formulation and was able to protect gerbils, after 2 injections at low dose vaccine concentration (1 μg per dose), against a virulent challenge with theB. divergensRouen87 isolate. In spite of polymorphism ofBd37gene, Bd37r induced complete immunoprotection against challenges with each of the 5 reference isolate groups defined by PCR-RFLP.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Hadj-Kaddour
- Laboratoire Biologie Cellulaire and Moléculaire, ERT 1038 'Vaccination anti-parasitaire', UFR Pharmacie, Université Montpellier I, 15 Avenue Charles Flahault, B.P. 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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Devos J, Geysen D. Epidemiological study of the prevalence of Babesia divergens in a veterinary practice in the mid-east of France. Vet Parasitol 2004; 125:237-49. [PMID: 15482881 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2003] [Revised: 01/12/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
To assess the epidemiology of Babesia divergens in a veterinary practice based in the mid-east of France ("Monts du Lyonnais"), blood was collected from 254 cattle belonging to 24 herds. To assess the dynamics of the carrier state, six carriers were identified, treated with flumethrin and sampled once every 3 weeks during 6 months. Two different DNA extraction methods were compared. Each sample was tested for the presence of parasites using a PCR-RFLP test based on the 18S rRNA gene. The sensitivity of the test was equivalent to a parasitaemia as low as 10(-5)% (in "Filter Paper" samples) and 10(-6)% in 1 ml blood (extracted using "Matrix"). With the latter method, the rate of detection diminishes in the low parasitaemia range but could probably be improved. This test proved to be very useful in the detection of B. divergens carriers. Serology using IFAT showed 7% of the cattle seropositive, which is suggestive of a disease situation with a low clinical risk level. Analysis of the PCR results suggests a 20% prevalence rate of carriers in the cattle population. The use of the mean parasitaemia is proposed to serve as a babesiosis clinical risk indicator. This approach could also be used in other babesia infections provided the lowest detectable parasitaemia level (threshold level) could be resolved for each parasite species.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Devos
- chez Mathy, 42360 Panissières, France
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Zintl A, Mulcahy G, Skerrett HE, Taylor SM, Gray JS. Babesia divergens, a bovine blood parasite of veterinary and zoonotic importance. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16:622-36. [PMID: 14557289 PMCID: PMC207107 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.16.4.622-636.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesia divergens is an intraerythrocytic protozoan parasite, transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus, and is the main agent of bovine babesiosis in Europe. It is not only a cause of significant loss to the cattle industry; it can also infect immunocompromised humans, causing medical emergencies characterized by rapid fulmination and parasitemias that may exceed 70%. The current emphasis in Europe on sustainable agriculture and extensification is likely to lead to an increase in vector tick populations with increased risk of infection. Despite the veterinary and zoonotic importance of this parasite, relatively little research has been carried out on B. divergens, and many questions regarding the parasite's epidemiology and the host's response remain unanswered. A better understanding of the species' biology and host-parasite interactions may lead to improved control mechanisms and new trends in vaccine and antibabesial drug development. This review provides the first comprehensive summary of B. divergens biology, including its morphology, life cycle, and host specificity, and the current state of knowledge of both human and bovine infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annetta Zintl
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology & Parasitology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Stuen S, Bergström K. Serological investigation of granulocytic Ehrlichia infection in sheep in Norway. Acta Vet Scand 2001; 42:331-8. [PMID: 11887393 PMCID: PMC2202325 DOI: 10.1186/1751-0147-42-331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/1999] [Accepted: 03/14/2001] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Serum samples of 749 sheep from 75 sheep flocks in Norway, i.e. 361 lambs (6 to 7 months old) and 388 adults (> 1.5 year), were analysed for antibodies to Ehrlichia equi. Ten animals from each flock were examined. Seropositive animals were found along the coast of southern Norway from Vestfold to Sør-Trøndelag (as far north as 63 degrees 38'N). Seropositive sheep were not found in southeast, east or northern Norway. Thirty-two flocks were seropositive, although tick-borne fever had only been diagnosed earlier in half of these. In 78% of the seropositive flocks, more than 80% of the sheep were seropositive. A total of 35.7% and 36.3% of lambs and adults were found seropositive, respectively. However, the overall seroprevalence among animals that had been grazing on Ixodes pastures were 0.80 for the lambs and 0.84 for the adults. Mean antibody titres (+/- SD) (log10) in seropositive lambs and adults were 2.59 (+/- 0.449) and 2.70 (+/- 0.481), respectively. No significant differences in either seroprevalence or mean antibody titre between sheep of different ages were obtained in this study. based on antibodies 94% of sheep flocks on Ixodes pastures were infected with a granulocytic Ehrlichia infection. The association between seropositive flocks and Ixodes infested pasture shows a very high degree of agreement (p < 0.00001). The present study indicates that granulocytic Ehrlichia infection in sheep is underdiagnosed in Norway.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Stuen
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Sheep and Goat Research, Sandnes, Norway.
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Christensson DA, Morén T. Seroresponse (IgG) after vaccination and natural infection of cattle with Babesia divergens. Acta Vet Scand 1988. [PMID: 3454550 DOI: 10.1186/bf03548607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Lewis D, Young ER, Baggott DG, Osborn GD. Babesia divergens infection of the Mongolian gerbil: titration of infective dose and preliminary observations on the disease produced. J Comp Pathol 1981; 91:565-72. [PMID: 7320254 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9975(81)90085-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Zwart D, Brocklesby DW. Babesiosis: non-specific resistance, immunological factors and pathogenesis. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 1979; 17:49-113. [PMID: 395836 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60549-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Hussein HS. The nature of immunity against Babesia hylomysci and B. microti infections in mice. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1977; 71:249-53. [PMID: 921361 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1977.11687188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Mice which have recovered from Babesia microti infection lose their parasitaemia as soon as three weeks after recovery and become solidly immune. This sterile immunity is not affected by splenectomy and may last for the life of the mouse. Mice which have recovered from B. hylomysci infection continue to harbour parasites at a subpatent level and spontaneous relapses were common after recovery. Hence the type of immunity which developed against this parasite is premunition and may last for life. Such immunity was not absolute and considerable parasitaemias developed after challenge. Cross-protection occurred between the two species of parasite.
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Bishop JP, Kuttler KL. Infectivity and immunogenicity of irradiated Babesia rodhaini. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1974; 21:758-60. [PMID: 4449095 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1974.tb03747.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Bishop JP, Adams LG. Babesia bigemina: immune response of cattle inoculated with irradiated parasites. Exp Parasitol 1974; 35:35-43. [PMID: 4815017 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(74)90004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Callow LL, McGregor W, Parker RJ, Dalgliesh RJ. Immunity of cattle to Babesia bigemina following its elimination from the host, with observations on antibody levels detected by the indirect fluorescent antibody test. Aust Vet J 1974; 50:12-5. [PMID: 4594670 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1974.tb09361.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Callow LL, McGregor W, Parker RJ, Dalgliesh RJ. The immunity of cattle to Babesia argentina after drug sterilisation of infections of varying duration. Aust Vet J 1974; 50:6-11. [PMID: 4594671 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1974.tb09359.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Löhr KF. Immunity to Babesia bigemina in experimentally infected cattle. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1972; 19:658-60. [PMID: 4629841 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1972.tb03553.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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The Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test for the Differentiation of Infections with Babesia divergeas or Babesia major. Res Vet Sci 1972. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)33965-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Johnston LA, Tammemagi L. Bovine babesiosis: duration of latent infection and immunity to Babesia argentina. Aust Vet J 1969; 45:445-9. [PMID: 5408640 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1969.tb06583.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Abstract
Babesia rodhaini remains in the blood of most rats from 2 to 12 months after the acute primary parasitaemia has subsided. By analogy with some trypanosome and malaria infections it is suggested that piroplasms may have the capacity for antigenic variation, thus allowing the parasite to survive in the host for so long albeit as a chronic infection. A population of B. rodhaini was isolated which was considerably less sensitive in passive transfer experiments to two pools of serum from recovered rats than the normal passage population.I thank Dr S. F. Barnett for his advice during the work and Dr F. Hawking and my colleagues at Mill Hill for criticizing the manuscript. This work was carried out during the tenure of an Agricultural Research Council Studentship.
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