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McGuigan K, Hoffmann AA, Sgrò CM. How is epigenetics predicted to contribute to climate change adaptation? What evidence do we need? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200119. [PMID: 33866811 PMCID: PMC8059617 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Transgenerational effects that are interpreted in terms of epigenetics have become an important research focus at a time when rapid environmental changes are occurring. These effects are usually interpreted as enhancing fitness extremely rapidly, without depending on the slower process of natural selection changing DNA-encoded (fixed) genetic variants in populations. Supporting evidence comes from a variety of sources, including environmental associations with epialleles, cross-generation responses of clonal material exposed to different environmental conditions, and altered patterns of methylation or frequency changes in epialleles across time. Transgenerational environmental effects have been postulated to be larger than those associated with DNA-encoded genetic changes, based on (for instance) stronger associations between epialleles and environmental conditions. Yet environmental associations for fixed genetic differences may always be weak under polygenic models where multiple combinations of alleles can lead to the same evolutionary outcome. The ultimate currency of adaptation is fitness, and few transgenerational studies have robustly determined fitness effects, particularly when compared to fixed genetic variants. Not all transgenerational modifications triggered by climate change will increase fitness: stressful conditions often trigger negative fitness effects across generations that can eliminate benefits. Epigenetic responses and other transgenerational effects will undoubtedly play a role in climate change adaptation, but further, well-designed, studies are required to test their importance relative to DNA-encoded changes. This article is part of the theme issue 'How does epigenetics influence the course of evolution?'
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina McGuigan
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ary A. Hoffmann
- School of Biosciences and Bio21 Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3010, Australia
| | - Carla M. Sgrò
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
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2
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Monnahan PJ, Kelly JK. The Genomic Architecture of Flowering Time Varies Across Space and Time in Mimulus guttatus. Genetics 2017; 206:1621-1635. [PMID: 28455350 PMCID: PMC5500155 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.117.201483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The degree to which genomic architecture varies across space and time is central to the evolution of genomes in response to natural selection. Bulked-segregant mapping combined with pooled sequencing provides an efficient means to estimate the effect of genetic variants on quantitative traits. We develop a novel likelihood framework to identify segregating variation within multiple populations and generations while accommodating estimation error on a sample- and SNP-specific basis. We use this method to map loci for flowering time within natural populations of Mimulus guttatus, collecting the early- and late-flowering plants from each of three neighboring populations and two consecutive generations. Structural variants, such as inversions, and genes from multiple flowering-time pathways exhibit the strongest associations with flowering time. We find appreciable variation in genetic effects on flowering time across both time and space; the greatest differences evident between populations, where numerous factors (environmental variation, genomic background, and private polymorphisms) likely contribute to heterogeneity. However, the changes across years within populations clearly identify genotype-by-environment interactions as an important influence on flowering time variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Monnahan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045
| | - John K Kelly
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045
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Travisano M, Vasi F, Lenski RE. LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION IN ESCHERICHIA COLI. III. VARIATION AMONG REPLICATE POPULATIONS IN CORRELATED RESPONSES TO NOVEL ENVIRONMENTS. Evolution 2017; 49:189-200. [PMID: 28593661 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1995.tb05970.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/1993] [Accepted: 03/30/1994] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Twelve populations of Escherichia coli were founded from a single clone and propagated for 2000 generations in identical glucose-limited environments. During this time, the mean fitnesses of the evolving populations relative to their common ancestor improved greatly, but their fitnesses relative to one another diverged only slightly. Although the populations showed similar fitness increases, they may have done so by different underlying adaptations, or they may have diverged in other respects by random genetic drift. Therefore, we examined the relative fitnesses of independently derived genotypes in two other sugars, maltose and lactose, to determine whether they were homogeneous or heterogeneous in these environments. The genetic variation among the derived lines in fitness on maltose and lactose was more than 100-times greater than their variation in fitness on glucose. Moreover, the glucose-adapted genotypes, on average, showed significant adaptation to lactose, but not to maltose. That pathways for use of maltose and glucose are virtually identical in E. coli, except for their distinct mechanisms of uptake, suggests that the derived genotypes have adapted primarily by improved glucose transport. From consideration of the number of generations of divergence, the mutation rate in E. coli, and the proportion of its genome required for growth on maltose (but not glucose), we hypothesize that pleiotropy involving the selected alleles, rather than random genetic drift of alleles at other loci, was the major cause of the variation among the derived genotypes in fitness on these other sugars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Travisano
- Center for Microbial Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824
| | - Farida Vasi
- Center for Microbial Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824
| | - Richard E Lenski
- Center for Microbial Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824
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4
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Castillo‐Chavez C, Levin SA, Gould F. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATION TO VARYING ENVIRONMENTS: A MATHEMATICAL MODEL. Evolution 2017; 42:986-994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1988.tb02517.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/1987] [Accepted: 02/26/1988] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Castillo‐Chavez
- Section of Ecology and Systematics Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853
- Center for Applied Mathematics Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853
| | - Simon A. Levin
- Section of Ecology and Systematics Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853
- Center for Applied Mathematics Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853
- Ecosystems Research Center Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853
| | - Fred Gould
- Department of Entomology North Carolina State University Raleigh NC 27607
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5
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Bennett AF, Lenski RE. EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION TO TEMPERATURE. V. ADAPTIVE MECHANISMS AND CORRELATED RESPONSES IN EXPERIMENTAL LINES OF
ESCHERICHIA COLI. Evolution 2017; 50:493-503. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1996.tb03862.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/1994] [Accepted: 03/21/1995] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Albert F. Bennett
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Irvine California 92717
| | - Richard E. Lenski
- Center for Microbial Ecology Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan 48824‐1325
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6
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Blows MW. THE GENETICS OF CENTRAL AND MARGINAL POPULATIONS OF DROSOPHILA SERRATA. II. HYBRID BREAKDOWN IN FITNESS COMPONENTS AS A CORRELATED RESPONSE TO SELECTION FOR DESICCATION RESISTANCE. Evolution 2017; 47:1271-1285. [PMID: 28564291 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02152.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/1992] [Accepted: 03/11/1993] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Multiple-peak epistasis is one of the four premises that underlie Wright's shifting-balance theory of evolution. A selection experiment was conducted in an attempt to push different geographic populations to different fitness peaks as a correlated response to selection for an additively controlled character (desiccation resistance). Four populations of Drosophila serrata, sampled from central and marginal areas of its distribution along a 3000-km stretch of Australia's east coast, underwent selection for desiccation resistance for 14 generations. After selection had ceased, control lines from each of the populations were crossed to determine the amount of hybrid breakdown that existed before selection and selected lines were crossed to determine the amount of hybrid breakdown after selection. Hybrid breakdown was measured in three fitness traits: developmental time, viability, and fecundity. When the individual crosses were examined, virtually no evidence was found for hybrid breakdown between these populations. However, the level of hybrid breakdown in development time in the control lines increased as the distance between the populations in the field increased. This relationship was lost in the selected lines. Therefore, selection for desiccation resistance influenced the level of hybrid breakdown in a fitness trait, although selection may need to be maintained for longer than 14 generations if a new relationship between hybrid breakdown and distance is to be formed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Blows
- Department of Genetics and Human Variation, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3083, Australia
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Goldstein DB, Holsinger KE. MAINTENANCE OF POLYGENIC VARIATION IN SPATIALLY STRUCTURED POPULATIONS: ROLES FOR LOCAL MATING AND GENETIC REDUNDANCY. Evolution 2017; 46:412-429. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1992.tb02048.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/1990] [Accepted: 08/28/1991] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David B. Goldstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, U-43; The University of Connecticut; Storrs CT 06268 USA
| | - Kent E. Holsinger
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, U-43; The University of Connecticut; Storrs CT 06268 USA
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Riska B. COMPOSITE TRAITS, SELECTION RESPONSE, AND EVOLUTION. Evolution 2017; 43:1172-1191. [PMID: 28564505 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1989.tb02567.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/1989] [Accepted: 04/10/1989] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Riska
- Department of Genetics University of California Davis CA 95616
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Riska B. SOME MODELS FOR DEVELOPMENT, GROWTH, AND MORPHOMETRIC CORRELATION. Evolution 2017; 40:1303-1311. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1986.tb05753.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/1985] [Accepted: 07/10/1986] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Riska
- Department of Meat and Animal Science; University of Wisconsin; Madison WI 53706
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10
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Cohan FM, Graf JD. LATITUDINAL CLINE INDROSOPHILA MELANOGASTERFOR KNOCKDOWN RESISTANCE TO ETHANOL FUMES AND FOR RATES OF RESPONSE TO SELECTION FOR FURTHER RESISTANCE. Evolution 2017; 39:278-293. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1985.tb05666.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/1983] [Accepted: 07/31/1984] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jean-Daniel Graf
- Station de zoologie experimentale; Université de Genève; 1224 Chêne-Bougeries Switzerland
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11
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Riska B. GROUP SIZE FACTORS AND GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION OF MORPHOMETRIC CORRELATION. Evolution 2017; 39:792-803. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1985.tb00421.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/1984] [Accepted: 04/29/1985] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Riska
- Department of Ecology and Evolution State University of New York Stony Brook NY 11794
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12
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Blows MW, Hoffmann AA. THE GENETICS OF CENTRAL AND MARGINAL POPULATIONS OF DROSOPHILA SERRATA. I. GENETIC VARIATION FOR STRESS RESISTANCE AND SPECIES BORDERS. Evolution 2017; 47:1255-1270. [PMID: 28564275 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02151.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/1992] [Accepted: 02/17/1993] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A selection experiment was used to determine if levels of genetic variance in an ecologically important trait, desiccation resistance, were different in central and marginal populations. Four populations of Drosophila serrata were sampled from central and marginal areas of its distribution, along a 3000-km stretch of Australia's east coast. Rainfall patterns along this stretch of coastline change from a tropical cycle in the north to a temperate cycle in the south. Replicate lines from the four populations underwent selection for desiccation resistance for 14 generations. Realized heritabilities calculated after 10 and 14 generations of selection indicated that the four populations differed significantly in the level of genetic variation for desiccation resistance available to selection. Populations from the more southern marginal areas had lower realized heritabilities than more northern central populations. However, a corresponding increase in mean desiccation resistance toward the margin was not found. A mechanism by which D. serrata seemed to have responded to selection was a reduction in the extent that metabolic rate was increased when flies were exposed to low humidity. This response indicates genetic variation for the control of metabolic rate. In contrast, increased desiccation resistance was not associated with lipid or glycogen levels. Increased resistance to desiccation was accompanied by increased starvation resistance, but radiation resistance was not affected. Selection did not affect the degree that replicate lines or populations had diverged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Blows
- Department of Genetics and Human Variation, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3083, Australia
| | - Ary A Hoffmann
- Department of Genetics and Human Variation, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3083, Australia
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13
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Cohan FM. CAN UNIFORM SELECTION RETARD RANDOM GENETIC DIVERGENCE BETWEEN ISOLATED CONSPECIFIC POPULATIONS? Evolution 2017; 38:495-504. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1984.tb00315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/1982] [Revised: 10/18/1983] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frederick M. Cohan
- Museum of Comparative Zoology Harvard University Cambridge Massachusetts 02138
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14
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Abstract
The molecular signature of selection depends strongly on whether new mutations are immediately favorable and sweep to fixation (hard sweeps) as opposed to when selection acts on segregating variation (soft sweeps). The prediction of reduced sequence variation around selected polymorphisms is much stronger for hard than soft sweeps, particularly when considering quantitative traits where sweeps are likely to be incomplete. Here, we directly investigate the genomic signal of soft sweeps within an artificial selection experiment on Mimulus guttatus. We first develop a statistical method based on Fisher’s angular transformation of allele frequencies to identify selected loci. Application of this method identifies about 400 significant windows, but no fixed differences between phenotypically divergent populations. With two notable exceptions, we find a modest average effect of partial sweeps on the amount of molecular variation. The first exception is a polymorphic inversion on chromosome 6. The increase of the derived haplotype has a broad genomic effect due to recombination suppression coupled with substantial initial haplotype structure within the population. Second, we found significant increases in nucleotide variation around selected loci in the population evolving larger flowers. This suggests that “high” alleles for flower size were initially less frequent than “low” alleles. This result is consistent with prior studies of M. guttatus and illustrates how molecular evolution can depend on the allele frequency spectrum at quantitative trait loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- John K Kelly
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas.
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15
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Garland T, Kelly SA, Malisch JL, Kolb EM, Hannon RM, Keeney BK, Van Cleave SL, Middleton KM. How to run far: multiple solutions and sex-specific responses to selective breeding for high voluntary activity levels. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 278:574-81. [PMID: 20810439 PMCID: PMC3025687 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.1584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The response to uniform selection may occur in alternate ways that result in similar performance. We tested for multiple adaptive solutions during artificial selection for high voluntary wheel running in laboratory mice. At generation 43, the four replicate high runner (HR) lines averaged 2.85-fold more revolutions per day as compared with four non-selected control (C) lines, and females ran 1.11-fold more than males, with no sex-by-linetype interaction. Analysis of variance indicated significant differences among C lines but not among HR for revolutions per day. By contrast, average speed varied significantly among HR lines, but not among C, and showed a sex-by-linetype interaction, with the HR/C ratio being 2.02 for males and 2.45 for females. Time spent running varied among both HR and C lines, and showed a sex-by-linetype interaction, with the HR/C ratio being 1.52 for males but only 1.17 for females. Thus, females (speed) and males (speed, but also time) evolved differently, as did the replicate selected lines. Speed and time showed a trade-off among HR but not among C lines. These results demonstrate that uniform selection on a complex trait can cause consistent responses in the trait under direct selection while promoting divergence in the lower-level components of that trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Garland
- Department of Biology, University of California, , Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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Simões P, Santos J, Fragata I, Mueller LD, Rose MR, Matos M. HOW REPEATABLE IS ADAPTIVE EVOLUTION? THE ROLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL ORIGIN AND FOUNDER EFFECTS IN LABORATORY ADAPTATION. Evolution 2008; 62:1817-29. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00423.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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van Swinderen B, Greenspan RJ. Flexibility in a gene network affecting a simple behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 2005; 169:2151-63. [PMID: 15687281 PMCID: PMC1449574 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.104.032631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2004] [Accepted: 01/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene interactions are emerging as central to understanding the realization of any phenotype. To probe the flexibility of interactions in a defined gene network, we isolated a set of 16 interacting genes in Drosophila, on the basis of their alteration of a quantitative behavioral phenotype-the loss of coordination in a temperature-sensitive allele of Syntaxin1A. The interactions inter se of this set of genes were then assayed in the presence and in the absence of the original Syntaxin1A mutation to ask whether the relationships among the 16 genes remain stable or differ after a change in genetic context. The pattern of epistatic interactions that occurs within this set of variants is dramatically altered in the two different genetic contexts. The results imply considerable flexibility in the network interactions of genes.
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18
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Ungerer MC, Linder CR, Rieseberg LH. Effects of genetic background on response to selection in experimental populations of Arabidopsis thaliana. Genetics 2003; 163:277-86. [PMID: 12586715 PMCID: PMC1462413 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/163.1.277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The extent to which genetic background can influence allelic fitness is poorly understood, despite having important evolutionary consequences. Using experimental populations of Arabidopsis thaliana and map-based population genetic data, we examined a multigeneration response to selection in populations with differentiated genetic backgrounds. Replicated experimental populations of A. thaliana with genetic backgrounds derived from ecotypes Landsberg and Niederzenz were subjected to strong viability and fertility selection by growing individuals from each population at high density for three generations in a growth chamber. Patterns of genome-wide selection were evaluated by examining deviations from expected frequencies of mapped molecular markers. Estimates of selection coefficients for individual genomic regions ranged from near 0 to 0.685. Genomic regions demonstrating the strongest response to selection most often were selected similarly in both genetic backgrounds. The selection response of several weakly selected regions, however, appeared to be sensitive to genetic background, but only one region showed evidence of positive selection in one background and negative selection in another. These results are most consistent with models of adaptive evolution in which allelic fitnesses are not strongly influenced by genetic background and only infrequently change in sign due to variation at other loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Ungerer
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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Remold SK, Lenski RE. Contribution of individual random mutations to genotype-by-environment interactions in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:11388-93. [PMID: 11572987 PMCID: PMC58739 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.201140198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown genotype-by-environment (GxE) interactions for traits related to organismal fitness. However, the genetic architecture of the interaction is usually unknown because these studies used genotypes that differ from one another by many unknown mutations. These mutations were also present as standing variation in populations and hence had been subject to prior selection. Based on such studies, it is therefore impossible to say what fraction of new, random mutations contributes to GxE interactions. In this study, we measured the fitness in four environments of 26 genotypes of Escherichia coli, each containing a single random insertion mutation. Fitness was measured relative to their common progenitor, which had evolved on glucose at 37 degrees C for the preceding 10,000 generations. The four assay environments differed in limiting resource and temperature (glucose, 28 degrees C; maltose, 28 degrees C; glucose, 37 degrees C; and maltose, 37 degrees C). A highly significant interaction between mutation and resource was found. In contrast, there was no interaction involving temperature. The resource interaction reflected much higher among mutation variation for fitness in maltose than in glucose. At least 11 mutations (42%) contributed to this GxE interaction through their differential fitness effects across resources. Beneficial mutations are generally thought to be rare but, surprisingly, at least three mutations (12%) significantly improved fitness in maltose, a resource novel to the progenitor. More generally, our findings demonstrate that GxE interactions can be quite common, even for genotypes that differ by only one mutation and in environments differing by only a single factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Remold
- Center for Microbial Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Cheverud JM, Dow MM. An autocorrelation analysis of genetic variation due to lineal fission in social groups of rhesus macaques. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1985. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1330670206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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