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Taylor-Cox ED, Macgregor CJ, Corthine A, Hill JK, Hodgson JA, Saccheri IJ. Wing morphological responses to latitude and colonisation in a range expanding butterfly. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10352. [PMID: 33240660 PMCID: PMC7680626 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Populations undergoing rapid climate-driven range expansion experience distinct selection regimes dominated both by increased dispersal at the leading edges and steep environmental gradients. Characterisation of traits associated with such expansions provides insight into the selection pressures and evolutionary constraints that shape demographic and evolutionary responses. Here we investigate patterns in three components of wing morphology (size, shape, colour) often linked to dispersal ability and thermoregulation, along latitudinal gradients of range expansion in the Speckled Wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria) in Britain (two regions of expansion in England and Scotland). We measured 774 males from 54 sites spanning 799 km with a 10-year mean average temperature gradient of 4 °C. A geometric morphometric method was used to investigate variation in size and shape of forewings and hindwings; colour, pattern, and contrast of the wings were examined using a measure of lightness (inverse degree of melanism). Overall, wing size increased with latitude by ∼2% per 100 km, consistent with Bergmann’s rule. Forewings became more rounded and hindwings more elongated with history of colonisation, possibly reflecting selection for increased dispersal ability. Contrary to thermal melanism expectations, wing colour was lighter where larvae developed at cooler temperatures and unrelated to long-term temperature. Changes in wing spot pattern were also detected. High heterogeneity in variance among sites for all of the traits studied may reflect evolutionary time-lags and genetic drift due to colonisation of new habitats. Our study suggests that temperature-sensitive plastic responses for size and colour interact with selection for dispersal traits (wing size and shape). Whilst the plastic and evolutionary responses may in some cases act antagonistically, the rapid expansion of P. aegeria implies an overall reinforcing effect between these two mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn D Taylor-Cox
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Callum J Macgregor
- Leverhulme Centre for Anthropocene Biodiversity, Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom.,Energy and Environment Institute, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Amy Corthine
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jane K Hill
- Leverhulme Centre for Anthropocene Biodiversity, Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Jenny A Hodgson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Ilik J Saccheri
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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2
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Xing S, Bonebrake TC, Ashton LA, Kitching RL, Cao M, Sun Z, Ho JC, Nakamura A. Colors of night: climate–morphology relationships of geometrid moths along spatial gradients in southwestern China. Oecologia 2018; 188:537-546. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4219-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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3
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Role of wing color and seasonal changes in ambient temperature and solar irradiation on predicted flight efficiency of the Albatross. J Therm Biol 2018; 71:112-122. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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4
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Zdelar M, Mullin F, Cheung C, Yousif M, Baltaretu B, Stone JR. Pollution-, temperature- and predator-induced responses in phenotypically plastic gastropod shell traits. MOLLUSCAN RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/13235818.2017.1358587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marlena Zdelar
- Department of Biology and The Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Fiona Mullin
- Department of Biology and The Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Carmen Cheung
- Department of Biology and The Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Mariam Yousif
- Department of Biology and The Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Bianca Baltaretu
- Department of Biology and The Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - J. R. Stone
- Department of Biology and The Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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5
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Kingsolver JG. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES OF WING SIZE, FLIGHT, AND SURVIVAL IN THE WESTERN WHITE BUTTERFLY. Evolution 2017; 53:1479-1490. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb05412.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/1998] [Accepted: 04/06/1999] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joel G. Kingsolver
- Department of Zoology University of Washington Box 351800 Seattle Washington 98195
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6
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Van Buskirk J, McCollum SA, Werner EE. NATURAL SELECTION FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED PHENOTYPES IN TADPOLES. Evolution 2017; 51:1983-1992. [PMID: 28565118 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb05119.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/1996] [Accepted: 06/30/1997] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Models suggest that phenotypic plasticity is maintained in situations where the optimal phenotype differs through time or space, so that selection acts in different directions in different environments. Some empirical work supports the general premise of this prediction because phenotypes induced by a particular environment sometimes perform better than other phenotypes when tested in that environment. We have extended these results by estimating the targets of selection in Pseudacris triseriata tadpoles in environments without predators and with larval Anax dragonflies. Tadpoles displayed significant behavioral and morphological plasticity when reared in the presence and absence of nonlethal dragonflies for 32 days in cattle tanks. We measured selection in the absence of free predators by regressing growth and survival in the tanks against activity and several measures of tail and body shape. We measured selection in the presence of predators by exposing groups of 10 tadpoles to Anax in overnight predation trials and regressing the average phenotype of survivors against the number of tadpoles killed. Selection in the two environments acted in opposite directions on both tail and body shape, although the affected fitness components were different. In the presence of Anax, tadpoles with shallow and narrow body, deep tail fin, and wide tail muscle survived best. In the absence of free predators, tadpoles with narrow tail muscle grew significantly faster, and those with shallow tail fin and deep body grew somewhat faster. Activity was unrelated to survival or growth in either environment. Developmental plasticity in tail shape closely paralleled selection, because tail fin depth increased after long-term exposure to Anax and tail muscle width tended to increase. In contrast, there was no plasticity in body shape in spite of strong selection for decreasing body depth. Thus, when confronted with a dragonfly predator, P. triseriata tadpoles adjusted their tail shape (but not body shape) almost exactly in the direction of selection imposed by Anax. These results suggest that phenotypic plasticity in some morphological traits, such as tail depth and tail muscle width, has evolved under intermittent selection by dragonflies. Other traits that undergo selection by dragonflies, such as body morphology, appear developmentally rigid, perhaps because of historically strong opposing selection in nature or other constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josh Van Buskirk
- Department of Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109
| | - S Andy McCollum
- Department of Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109
| | - Earl E Werner
- Department of Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109
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7
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Kingsolver JG. FITNESS CONSEQUENCES OF SEASONAL POLYPHENISM IN WESTERN WHITE BUTTERFLIES. Evolution 2017; 49:942-954. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1995.tb02329.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/1994] [Accepted: 09/06/1994] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joel G. Kingsolver
- Department of Zoology, NJ‐15 University of Washington Seattle Washington 98195
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8
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Scheiner SM, Callahan HS. MEASURING NATURAL SELECTION ON PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY. Evolution 2017; 53:1704-1713. [PMID: 28565445 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb04555.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/1998] [Accepted: 05/26/1999] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
To understand natural selection we need to integrate its measure across environments. We present a method for measuring phenotypic selection that combines the potential for both environmental variation and phenotypic plasticity. The method uses path analysis and a measure of selection that is analogous to selection on breeding values. For individuals growing in alternative environments, paths are created that represent potential changes in the environment. The probabilities for these changes are then multiplied by the path coefficients to calculate selection coefficients. Selection on plasticity is measured as the difference in selection within each environment. We illustrate these methods using data on selection in an experimental population of Arabidopsis thaliana. Individuals from 36 families were grown in one of four environments, a factorial combination of shaded/open and early/late shading. For final height of the inflorescence, there was positive selection in both the open and shaded environments and negative selection on plasticity of height. For bolting time, there was also positive selection in both environments, but no selection on plasticity. We show how to use this information to examine how selection would change with changes in environmental frequencies and their transition probabilities. These methods can be expanded to encompass continuous traits and continuous environments as well as other complexities of natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Scheiner
- Department of Life Sciences, Arizona State University West, P.O. Box 37100, Phoenix, Arizona, 85069
| | - Hilary S Callahan
- Department of Botany, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, 37996
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9
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Kingsolver JG, Smith SG. ESTIMATING SELECTION ON QUANTITATIVE TRAITS USING CAPTURE‐RECAPTURE DATA. Evolution 2017; 49:384-388. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1995.tb02252.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/1993] [Accepted: 06/02/1994] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joel G. Kingsolver
- Department of Zoology, NJ‐15 University of Washington Seattle Washington 98195
| | - Steven G. Smith
- Center for Quantitative Science School of Fisheries, HR‐20 University of Washington Seattle Washington 98195
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10
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Van Buskirk J. Spatially heterogeneous selection in nature favors phenotypic plasticity in anuran larvae. Evolution 2017; 71:1670-1685. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Josh Van Buskirk
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies; University of Zurich; Winterthurerstrasse 190 CH-8057 Zurich Switzerland
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11
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Connallon T, Hall MD. Genetic correlations and sex‐specific adaptation in changing environments. Evolution 2016; 70:2186-2198. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Connallon
- School of Biological Sciences Monash University Clayton Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences Monash University Clayton Victoria 3800 Australia
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12
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Su S, Lim M, Kunte K. Prey from the eyes of predators: Color discriminability of aposematic and mimetic butterflies from an avian visual perspective. Evolution 2015; 69:2985-94. [PMID: 26477885 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 09/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Predation exerts strong selection on mimetic butterfly wing color patterns, which also serve other functions such as sexual selection. Therefore, specific selection pressures may affect the sexes and signal components differentially. We tested three predictions about the evolution of mimetic resemblance by comparing wing coloration of aposematic butterflies and their Batesian mimics: (a) females gain greater mimetic advantage than males and therefore are better mimics, (b) due to intersexual genetic correlations, sexually monomorphic mimics are better mimics than female-limited mimics, and (c) mimetic resemblance is better on the dorsal wing surface that is visible to predators in flight. Using a physiological model of avian color vision, we quantified mimetic resemblance from predators' perspective, which showed that female butterflies were better mimics than males. Mimetic resemblance in female-limited mimics was comparable to that in sexually monomorphic mimics, suggesting that intersexual genetic correlations did not constrain adaptive response to selection for female-limited mimicry. Mimetic resemblance on the ventral wing surface was better than that on the dorsal wing surface, implying stronger natural and sexual selection on ventral and dorsal surfaces, respectively. These results suggest that mimetic resemblance in butterfly mimicry rings has evolved under various selective pressures acting in a sex- and wing surface-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Su
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India. .,Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Matthew Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India.
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13
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Walsh MR, Cooley F, Biles K, Munch SB. Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity within- and across-generations: a challenge for theory? Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142205. [PMID: 25392477 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Much work has shown that the environment can induce non-genetic changes in phenotype that span multiple generations. Theory predicts that predictable environmental variation selects for both increased within- and across-generation responses. Yet, to the best of our knowledge, there are no empirical tests of this prediction. We explored the relationship between within- versus across-generation plasticity by evaluating the influence of predator cues on the life-history traits of Daphnia ambigua. We measured the duration of predator-induced transgenerational effects, determined when transgenerational responses are induced, and quantified the cues that activate transgenerational plasticity. We show that predator exposure during embryonic development causes earlier maturation and increased reproductive output. Such effects are detectable two generations removed from predator exposure and are similar in magnitude in response to exposure to cues emitted by injured conspecifics. Moreover, all experimental contexts and traits yielded a negative correlation between within- versus across-generation responses. That is, responses to predator cues within- and across-generations were opposite in sign and magnitude. Although many models address transgenerational plasticity, none of them explain this apparent negative relationship between within- and across-generation plasticities. Our results highlight the need to refine the theory of transgenerational plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Walsh
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
| | - Frank Cooley
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
| | - Kelsey Biles
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
| | - Stephan B Munch
- National Marine Fisheries Service, 110 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
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14
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Purandare SR, Bickel RD, Jaquiery J, Rispe C, Brisson JA. Accelerated evolution of morph-biased genes in pea aphids. Mol Biol Evol 2014; 31:2073-83. [PMID: 24770714 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msu149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity, the production of alternative phenotypes (or morphs) from the same genotype due to environmental factors, results in some genes being expressed in a morph-biased manner. Theoretically, these morph-biased genes experience relaxed selection, the consequence of which is the buildup of slightly deleterious mutations at these genes. Over time, this is expected to result in increased protein divergence at these genes between species and a signature of relaxed purifying selection within species. Here we test these theoretical expectations using morph-biased genes in the pea aphid, a species that produces multiple morphs via polyphenism. We find that morph-biased genes exhibit faster rates of evolution (in terms of dN/dS) relative to unbiased genes and that divergence generally increases with increasing morph bias. Further, genes with expression biased toward rarer morphs (sexual females and males) show faster rates of evolution than genes expressed in the more common morph (asexual females), demonstrating that the amount of time a gene spends being expressed in a morph is associated with its rate of evolution. And finally, we show that genes expressed in the rarer morphs experience decreased purifying selection relative to unbiased genes, suggesting that it is a relaxation of purifying selection that contributes to their faster rates of evolution. Our results provide an important empirical look at the impact of phenotypic plasticity on gene evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Julie Jaquiery
- INRA, UMR1349, Institute of Genetics, Environment and Plant Protection, Le Rheu, France
| | - Claude Rispe
- INRA, UMR1349, Institute of Genetics, Environment and Plant Protection, Le Rheu, FranceINRA, UMR1300 Biology, Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Animal Health, Nantes, France
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15
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Stoehr AM, Walker JF, Monteiro A. Spalt expression and the development of melanic color patterns in pierid butterflies. EvoDevo 2013; 4:6. [PMID: 23419038 PMCID: PMC3610209 DOI: 10.1186/2041-9139-4-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Little is currently known about wing pattern development in the butterfly family Pieridae, which consists mostly of black melanized elements on white or yellow/orange backgrounds. A single transcription factor, Spalt (Sal), has been previously associated with the development of some pattern elements in Pieris rapae, but it is unclear to what extent Sal is associated with patterns in other pierid species. Results We use immunohistochemistry targeting Sal proteins across several pierids and show that Sal is associated with dense patches of melanization across species but is not associated with vein-melanization or diffuse melanization on the wing. In addition, Sal is expressed along cross-veins and wing compartment midlines that do not develop melanization. Male and female P. rapae spots are sexually dimorphic in size and this dimorphism is also present in the domains of Sal expression. Finally, by disrupting cells positioned in the center of the anterior black spots of P. rapae, before and during the time of Sal expression, spot size was reduced. Conclusions Our results suggest, but do not conclusively show, that pierid spots may develop in a manner similar to that of nymphalid eyespots, that is, containing a group of signaling cells at the center of the pattern responsible for the differentiation of the complete spot, and that spots and eyespots share at least one signal-response gene in common, the transcription factor Sal. We propose that focal differentiation and focal signaling mechanisms evolved prior to the split of the nymphalid and pierid lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Stoehr
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, CT 06511, New Haven, USA.
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16
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Earley RL, Hanninen AF, Fuller A, Garcia MJ, Lee EA. Phenotypic plasticity and integration in the mangrove rivulus (Kryptolebias marmoratus): a prospectus. Integr Comp Biol 2012; 52:814-27. [PMID: 22990587 DOI: 10.1093/icb/ics118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The mangrove rivulus (Kryptolebias marmoratus) is a small fish native to mangrove ecosystems in Florida, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. This species is one of only two self-fertilizing, hermaphroditic vertebrates capable of producing offspring that are genetically identical to both the parent and all siblings. Long bouts of selfing result in individuals with completely homozygous genotypes, effectively allowing for the production of "clones." Rivulus is also extremely sensitive to environmental change, both during development and adulthood. Life-history traits, behavior, physiology, morphology, and even sexual phenotype are shaped to a large extent by the interaction of genes with the environment, and many of these traits appear to co-vary. True reaction norms can be generated for this species in much the same way as has been done for clonally reproducing invertebrates and plants that have contributed immensely to our understanding of the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. That is, rivulus provides the opportunity to place individuals with identical genotypes in many different environments at any point during ontogeny or adulthood. In addition, rivulus populations are characterized by high genotypic diversity, a luxury not afforded by many clonal vertebrates, which allows us to evaluate variation among genotypes in the shape of reaction norms and in patterns of covariance among traits. We provide background information on phenotypic plasticity and phenotypic integration, coupled with a description of characteristics that we feel qualify rivulus as a potentially powerful model in which to study the evolution of reaction norms and covariance among traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan L Earley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
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17
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Davis AK, Chi J, Bradley C, Altizer S. The redder the better: wing color predicts flight performance in monarch butterflies. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41323. [PMID: 22848463 PMCID: PMC3405115 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The distinctive orange and black wings of monarchs (Danaus plexippus) have long been known to advertise their bitter taste and toxicity to potential predators. Recent work also showed that both the orange and black coloration of this species can vary in response to individual-level and environmental factors. Here we examine the relationship between wing color and flight performance in captive-reared monarchs using a tethered flight mill apparatus to quantify butterfly flight speed, duration and distance. In three different experiments (totaling 121 individuals) we used image analysis to measure body size and four wing traits among newly-emerged butterflies prior to flight trials: wing area, aspect ratio (length/width), melanism, and orange hue. Results showed that monarchs with darker orange (approaching red) wings flew longer distances than those with lighter orange wings in analyses that controlled for sex and other morphometric traits. This finding is consistent with past work showing that among wild monarchs, those sampled during the fall migration are darker in hue (redder) than non-migratory monarchs. Together, these results suggest that pigment deposition onto wing scales during metamorphosis could be linked with traits that influence flight, such as thorax muscle size, energy storage or metabolism. Our results reinforce an association between wing color and flight performance in insects that is suggested by past studies of wing melansim and seasonal polyphenism, and provide an important starting point for work focused on mechanistic links between insect movement and color.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Davis
- Odum School of Ecology, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
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18
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Joiris A, Korati S, Van Dyck H. Differential Bird Predator Attack Rate on Seasonal Forms of the Map Butterfly (Araschnia levana L.): Does the Substrate Matter? Ethology 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01819.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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19
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Abstract
Organisms are capable of an astonishing repertoire of phenotypic responses to the environment, and these often define important adaptive solutions to heterogeneous and unpredictable conditions. The terms 'phenotypic plasticity' and 'canalization' indicate whether environmental variation has a large or small effect on the phenotype. The evolution of canalization and plasticity is influenced by optimizing selection-targeting traits within environments, but inherent fitness costs of plasticity may also be important. We present a meta-analysis of 27 studies (of 16 species of plant and 7 animals) that have measured selection on the degree of plasticity independent of the characters expressed within environments. Costs of plasticity and canalization were equally frequent and usually mild; large costs were observed only in studies with low sample size. We tested the importance of several covariates, but only the degree of environmental stress was marginally positively related to the cost of plasticity. These findings suggest that costs of plasticity are often weak, and may influence phenotypic evolution only under stressful conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Van Buskirk
- Institute of Zoology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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20
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Kingsolver JG, Hoekstra HE, Hoekstra JM, Berrigan D, Vignieri SN, Hill CE, Hoang A, Gibert P, Beerli P. The strength of phenotypic selection in natural populations. Am Nat 2008; 157:245-61. [PMID: 18707288 DOI: 10.1086/319193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1276] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
How strong is phenotypic selection on quantitative traits in the wild? We reviewed the literature from 1984 through 1997 for studies that estimated the strength of linear and quadratic selection in terms of standardized selection gradients or differentials on natural variation in quantitative traits for field populations. We tabulated 63 published studies of 62 species that reported over 2,500 estimates of linear or quadratic selection. More than 80% of the estimates were for morphological traits; there is very little data for behavioral or physiological traits. Most published selection studies were unreplicated and had sample sizes below 135 individuals, resulting in low statistical power to detect selection of the magnitude typically reported for natural populations. The absolute values of linear selection gradients |beta| were exponentially distributed with an overall median of 0.16, suggesting that strong directional selection was uncommon. The values of |beta| for selection on morphological and on life-history/phenological traits were significantly different: on average, selection on morphology was stronger than selection on phenology/life history. Similarly, the values of |beta| for selection via aspects of survival, fecundity, and mating success were significantly different: on average, selection on mating success was stronger than on survival. Comparisons of estimated linear selection gradients and differentials suggest that indirect components of phenotypic selection were usually modest relative to direct components. The absolute values of quadratic selection gradients |gamma| were exponentially distributed with an overall median of only 0.10, suggesting that quadratic selection is typically quite weak. The distribution of gamma values was symmetric about 0, providing no evidence that stabilizing selection is stronger or more common than disruptive selection in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- J G Kingsolver
- Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
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21
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Marcus JM, Evans TM. A simulation study of mutations in the genetic regulatory hierarchy for butterfly eyespot focus determination. Biosystems 2008; 93:250-5. [PMID: 18586070 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2008.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 05/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The color patterns on the wings of butterflies have been an important model system in evolutionary developmental biology. A recent computational model tested genetic regulatory hierarchies hypothesized to underlie the formation of butterfly eyespot foci [Evans, T.M., Marcus, J.M., 2006. A simulation study of the genetic regulatory hierarchy for butterfly eyespot focus determination. Evol. Dev. 8, 273-283]. The computational model demonstrated that one proposed hierarchy was incapable of reproducing the known patterns of gene expression associated with eyespot focus determination in wild-type butterflies, but that two slightly modified alternative hierarchies were capable of reproducing all of the known gene expressions patterns. Here we extend the computational models previously implemented in Delphi 2.0 to two mutants derived from the squinting bush brown butterfly (Bicyclus anynana). These two mutants, comet and Cyclops, have aberrantly shaped eyespot foci that are produced by different mechanisms. The comet mutation appears to produce a modified interaction between the wing margin and the eyespot focus that results in a series of comet-shaped eyespot foci. The Cyclops mutation causes the failure of wing vein formation between two adjacent wing-cells and the fusion of two adjacent eyespot foci to form a single large elongated focus in their place. The computational approach to modeling pattern formation in these mutants allows us to make predictions about patterns of gene expression, which are largely unstudied in butterfly mutants. It also suggests a critical experiment that will allow us to distinguish between two hypothesized genetic regulatory hierarchies that may underlie all butterfly eyespot foci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Marcus
- Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, 1906 College Heights Boulevard #11080, Bowling Green, KY 42101-1080, USA.
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22
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Talloen W, Van Dongen S, Van Dyck H, Lens L. Environmental stress and quantitative genetic variation in butterfly wing characteristics. Evol Ecol 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-008-9246-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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23
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Hoverman JT, Relyea RA. The rules of engagement: how to defend against combinations of predators. Oecologia 2007; 154:551-60. [PMID: 17828559 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-007-0847-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2006] [Accepted: 08/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Studies of inducible defenses have traditionally examined prey responses to one predator at a time. However, prey in nature encounter combinations of predators that should force them to produce phenotypic compromises. We examined how snails (Helisoma trivolvis) alter their phenotype in the presence of three different predator species that were presented alone and in pairwise combinations. When snails were exposed to each predator alone, they formed predator-specific defenses that reflected the differences in each predator's foraging mode. When snails were exposed to pairwise combinations of predators, their phenotype was dependent on their ability to detect each predator, the risk posed by each predator, and the effectiveness of a given defense against each predator. Consequently, responses to combined predators were typically biased towards one of the predators in the pair. This suggests that prey facing combined predators do not form simple intermediate defenses and, as a result, may experience enhanced mortality risk when they encounter natural predator regimes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason T Hoverman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
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24
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Weinig C, Johnston J, German ZM, Demink LM. Local and global costs of adaptive plasticity to density in Arabidopsis thaliana. Am Nat 2006; 167:826-36. [PMID: 16685640 DOI: 10.1086/503530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2005] [Accepted: 02/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Although phenotypic plasticity is demonstrably adaptive in a range of settings, organisms are not perfectly plastic. Costs of plasticity comprise one factor predicted to counter the evolution of this adaptive strategy, yet evidence of costs is rare. Here, we test the fitness effects of plastic life-history and morphological responses to density and costs of this plasticity in recombinant inbred lines of Arabidopsis thaliana. Several costs of plasticity and homeostasis were detected. Of particular relevance, there was a significant cost of plasticity to active stem-elongation responses, an adaptive trait in many species. There was also a cost of plasticity to apical branch production at both high and low density, which resulted from the greater suppression of basal branching in genotypes with plastic apical branch production relative to genotypes with fixed apical branch production. The presence of a cost in multiple environments (i.e., a global cost) is predicted to counter the evolution of plasticity. Experimental segregating progenies such as the one used here are expected to have higher genetic costs of plasticity than arrays of genotypes sampled from natural populations because selection should remove genotypes with costs resulting from linkage disequilibrium or epistasis. The use of experimental progeny arrays therefore increases the ability to evaluate genetic costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Weinig
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA.
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25
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Brisson JA, De Toni DC, Duncan I, Templeton AR. ABDOMINAL PIGMENTATION VARIATION IN DROSOPHILA POLYMORPHA: GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE TRAIT, AND UNDERLYING PHYLOGEOGRAPHY. Evolution 2005. [DOI: 10.1554/04-608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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26
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Huber H, Kane NC, Heschel MS, von Wettberg EJ, Banta J, Leuck AM, Schmitt J. Frequency and Microenvironmental Pattern of Selection on Plastic Shade‐Avoidance Traits in a Natural Population ofImpatiens capensis. Am Nat 2004; 163:548-63. [PMID: 15122502 DOI: 10.1086/382549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2003] [Accepted: 09/24/2003] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The frequency and predictability of different selective environments are important parameters in models for the evolution of plasticity but have rarely been measured empirically in natural populations. We used an experimental phytometer approach to examine the frequency, predictability, and environmental determinants of heterogeneous selection on phytochrome-mediated shade-avoidance responses in a natural population of the annual plant Impatiens capensis. The strength and direction of selection on shade-avoidance traits varied substantially on a fine spatial scale. The shade-avoidance phenotype had high relative fecundity in some microsites but was disadvantageous in other microsites. Local seedling density proved to be a surprisingly poor predictor of microenvironmental variation in the strength and direction of selection on stem elongation in this study population. At least some of this unpredictability resulted from microenvironmental variation in water availability; the shade-avoidance phenotype was more costly in dry microsites. Thus, environmental heterogeneity in resource availability can affect the relative costs and benefits of expressing shade-avoidance traits independent of local seedling density, the inductive environmental cue. Theory predicts that these conditions may promote local genetic differentiation in reaction norms in structured populations, as observed in I. capensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidrun Huber
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA.
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28
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Ellers J, Boggs CL. THE EVOLUTION OF WING COLOR: MALE MATE CHOICE OPPOSES ADAPTIVE WING COLOR DIVERGENCE IN COLIAS BUTTERFLIES. Evolution 2003. [DOI: 10.1554/0014-3820(2003)057[1100:teowcm]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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29
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30
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Ottenheim MM, Wertheim B, Holloway GJ, Brakefield PM. Survival of colour-polymorphicEristalis arbustorumhoverflies in semi-field conditions. Funct Ecol 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2435.1999.00284.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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31
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Van Dyck H, Wiklund C. Seasonal butterfly design: morphological plasticity among three developmental pathways relative to sex, flight and thermoregulation. J Evol Biol 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00384.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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32
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick A Relyea
- Department of Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Winn
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
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35
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Forsman, Appelqvist. Experimental manipulation reveals differential effects of colour pattern on survival in male and female pygmy grasshoppers. J Evol Biol 2001. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00041.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Forsman
- Department of Zoology, Uppsala University, Villavägen 9, S‐752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Appelqvist
- Department of Zoology, Uppsala University, Villavägen 9, S‐752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
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36
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Janssen JM, Monteiro A, Brakefield PM. Correlations between scale structure and pigmentation in butterfly wings. Evol Dev 2001; 3:415-23. [PMID: 11806637 DOI: 10.1046/j.1525-142x.2001.01046.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We examined the correlation between color and structure of wing scales in the nymphalid butterflies Bicyclus anynana and Heliconius melpomene. All scales in B. anynana are rather similar in comparison to the clear structural differences of differently pigmented scales in H. melpomene. Where scale structural differences in H. melpomene are qualitative, they seem to be quantitative in B. anynana. There is a "gradient" in the density of some structural elements, the cross ribs, in the scales of B. anynana: black, gold, and brown scales show progressively lower cross rib density within an individual. There is, however, high individual variation in the absolute cross rib densities (i.e., scales with a particular color and cross rib density in one individual may have a different color but similar density in another individual). By ectopically inducing color pattern during early pupal development, we examined whether a scale's color and its microstructure could be uncoupled. The effect of these manipulations appears to be different in B. anynana and H. melpomene. In Bicyclus, "black" scales induced by wing damage at an ectopic location normally containing brown scales acquire both an intermediate structure and color between that of brown and normal black scales. In Heliconius, however, intermediate colors or scale structure were never observed, and scales with an altered color (due to damage) always have the same structure as normal scales with that color. The results are discussed on the basis of gene expression patterns, variability in rates of scale development and pigment, and scale sclerotization pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Janssen
- Section of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Evolutionary and Ecological Sciences, Leiden University, The Netherlands
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37
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Dorn LA, Pyle EH, Schmitt J. Plasticity to light cues and resources in Arabidopsis thaliana: testing for adaptive value and costs. Evolution 2000; 54:1982-94. [PMID: 11209775 DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb01242.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Plants shaded by neighbors or overhead foliage experience both a reduction in the ratio of red to far red light (R:FR), a specific cue perceived by phytochrome, and reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), an essential resource. We tested the adaptive value of plasticity to crowding and to the cue and resource components of foliage shade in the annual plant Arabidopsis thaliana by exposing 36 inbred families from four natural populations to four experimental treatments: (1) high density, full sun; (2) low density, full sun; (3) low density, neutral shade; and (4) low density, low R:FR-simulated foliage shade. Genotypic selection analysis within each treatment revealed strong environmental differences in selection on plastic life-history traits. We used specific contrasts to measure plasticity to density and foliage shade, to partition responses to foliage shade into phytochrome-mediated responses to the R:FR cue and responses to PAR, and to test whether plasticity was adaptive (i.e., in the same direction as selection in each environment). Contrary to expectation, we found no evidence for adaptive plasticity to density. However, we observed both adaptive and maladaptive responses to foliage shade. In general, phytochrome-mediated plasticity to the R:FR cue of foliage shade was adaptive and counteracted maladaptive growth responses to reduced PAR. These results support the prediction that active developmental responses to environmental cues are more likely to be adaptive than are passive resource-mediated responses. Multiple regression analysis detected a few costs of adaptive plasticity and adaptive homeostasis, but such costs were infrequent and their expression depended on the environment. Thus, costs of plasticity may occasionally constrain the evolution of adaptive responses to foliage shade in Arabidopsis, but this constraint may differ among environments and is far from ubiquitous.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Dorn
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA.
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38
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Easterling DR, Meehl GA, Parmesan C, Changnon SA, Karl TR, Mearns LO. Climate extremes: observations, modeling, and impacts. Science 2000; 289:2068-74. [PMID: 11000103 DOI: 10.1126/science.289.5487.2068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1433] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
One of the major concerns with a potential change in climate is that an increase in extreme events will occur. Results of observational studies suggest that in many areas that have been analyzed, changes in total precipitation are amplified at the tails, and changes in some temperature extremes have been observed. Model output has been analyzed that shows changes in extreme events for future climates, such as increases in extreme high temperatures, decreases in extreme low temperatures, and increases in intense precipitation events. In addition, the societal infrastructure is becoming more sensitive to weather and climate extremes, which would be exacerbated by climate change. In wild plants and animals, climate-induced extinctions, distributional and phenological changes, and species' range shifts are being documented at an increasing rate. Several apparently gradual biological changes are linked to responses to extreme weather and climate events.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Easterling
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/National Climatic Data Center, 151 Patton Avenue, Asheville, NC 28801, USA.
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39
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Dorn LA, Hammond Pyle E, Schmitt J. PLASTICITY TO LIGHT CUES AND RESOURCES IN ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA: TESTING FOR ADAPTIVE VALUE AND COSTS. Evolution 2000. [DOI: 10.1554/0014-3820(2000)054[1982:ptlcar]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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40
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Preziosi RF, Snyder WE, Grill CP, Moore AJ. THE FITNESS OF MANIPULATING PHENOTYPES: IMPLICATIONS FOR STUDIES OF FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY AND MULTIVARIATE SELECTION. Evolution 1999; 53:1312-1318. [PMID: 28565526 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb04546.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/1998] [Accepted: 03/19/1999] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic manipulation (or phenotypic engineering) that alters trait distributions provides a way to increase the statistical power of detecting relationships between traits and fitness. Manipulations relying on plastic responses, however, assume a specific relationship between the perturbation and the alteration of the traits when multiple traits are involved. We measured several traits, including condition measured as fluctuating asymmetry, in the ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis under six different diets to examine how altered environments affected multiple traits and their distributions. Although diet affected fluctuating asymmetry, we found no consistent relationship between degree of asymmetry and other phenotypic measures. As expected, individual traits were altered by our treatments. Contrary to expectation, relationships among traits were not constant among diets. Our results suggest that assumptions about the relationship between condition and trait values, especially fluctuating asymmetry, cannot be made. Further, studies that use manipulated phenotypes to statistically determine the form of selection must first demonstrate that the pattern of the phenotypic correlation matrix is not itself altered by the manipulation. If the phenotypic correlation matrix is not constant, then experimental estimates of selection coefficients may not reflect selection that occurs in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard F Preziosi
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0091
| | - William E Snyder
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0091
| | - Christopher P Grill
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0091
| | - Allen J Moore
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0091
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41
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Schmitt J, Dudley SA, Pigliucci M. Manipulative Approaches to Testing Adaptive Plasticity: Phytochrome‐Mediated Shade‐Avoidance Responses in Plants. Am Nat 1999; 154:S43-S54. [DOI: 10.1086/303282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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42
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Pigliucci, Cammell, Schmitt. Evolution of phenotypic plasticity a comparative approach in the phylogenetic neighbourhood of Arabidopsis thaliana. J Evol Biol 1999. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00074.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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43
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44
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Trade-offs between melanization, development time and adult size in Inachis io and Araschnia levana (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)? Heredity (Edinb) 1999. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.hdy.6884510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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45
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Brakefield PM, Gates J, Keys D, Kesbeke F, Wijngaarden PJ, Monteiro A, French V, Carroll SB. Development, plasticity and evolution of butterfly eyespot patterns. Nature 1996; 384:236-42. [PMID: 12809139 DOI: 10.1038/384236a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The developmental and genetic bases for the formation, plasticity and diversity of eyespot patterns in butterflies are examined. Eyespot pattern mutants, regulatory gene expression, and transplants of the eyespot developmental organizer demonstrate that eyespot position, number, size and colour are determined progressively in a developmental pathway largely uncoupled from those regulating other wing-pattern elements and body structures. Species comparisons and selection experiments suggest that the evolution of eyespot patterns can occur rapidly through modulation of different stages of this pathway, and requires only single, or very few, changes in regulatory genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Brakefield
- Institute of Evolutionary and Ecological Sciences, University of Leiden, Kaiserstraat 63, Postbus 9516, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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