Loomingness and the Fear of AIDS: Perceptions of Motion and Menace

A Proximal Perspective on Disgust

The functional basis of disgust in disease avoidance is widely accepted; however, there is disagreement over what disgust is. This is a significant problem, as basic questions about disgust require knowing if single/multiple forms/processes exist. We address this issue with a new model with one form of disgust generated by multiple processes: (a) pure disgust experienced during gastrointestinal illness; (b) somatosensory disgust elicited by specific cues that activate the pure disgust state; (c) anticipatory disgust elicited by associations between distance cues for somatosensory disgust and requiring threat evaluation; (d) simulated disgusts elicited by imagining somatosensory and anticipatory disgust and frequently involving other emotions. Different contamination processes interlink (a–d). The implications of our model for fundamental questions about disgust (e.g., emotion status; continuation into animals) are examined.

Passion, Intimacy, and Time: Passionate Love as a Function of Change in Intimacy

To build on existing theories about love, we propose that passion is a function of change in intimacy (i.e., the first derivative of intimacy overtime). Hence, passion will be low when intimacy is stable (either high or low), but rising intimacy will create a strong sense of passion. This view is able to account for a broad range of evidence, including frequency of sex in long-term relationships, intimate and sexual behavior of extraverts, gender differences in intimate behavior, gain and loss effects of communicated attraction, the biologically atypical human preference for face-to-face coitus, and patterns of distress in romantic breakups. Although this view may provide a good fit to available evidence, the totality of evidence is not yet adequate for a definitive conclusion, and suggestions for further research are offered.

Examination of the convergent validity of looming vulnerability in the anxiety disorders

The looming vulnerability model proposes that individuals with anxiety generate dynamic mental scenarios of threats as intensifying and approaching faster than they can cope or respond. In addition to the looming cognitive style posing a general cognitive vulnerability for anxiety, the looming vulnerability model posits that different anxiety disorders can be distinguished based on the specific content of their looming vulnerability themes. The current study examined whether different anxiety disorders have distinct looming vulnerability content along the lines of disorder-specific themes. A treatment-seeking sample of individuals with DSM-IV anxiety disorders (N=172) completed measures of looming vulnerability prior to treatment initiation. Consistent with the looming vulnerability model, the results indicated that individuals with social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, and panic disorder reported significantly greater disorder-specific looming content compared to non-disorder specific looming content. Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder reported the same level of looming social threat as those with social phobia. The results suggest that different anxiety disorders can be distinguished by the specific content of looming vulnerability themes and provide empirical support for the convergent validity of the Looming Vulnerability Scale.

Injecting drug user views (and experiences) of drug-related litter bins in public places: a comparative study of qualitative research findings obtained from UK settings

This paper provides a comparative study of qualitative research concerning drug-related litter in community settings (associated with illicit drug use/rs) and of the modes of intervention (noted by municipal authorities in two different UK settings) aimed at reducing harm associated with this contemporary public health issue. More specifically, the paper focuses upon the views and experiences of 51 injecting drug users regarding DRL-bin provision, service uptake and connected events in the relevant settings. Comparative analysis of these qualitative experiences appears to confirm Fitzpatrick and LaGory's concept of 'place matters' in any consideration of applied, low threshold, health intervention. Accordingly, street-based, drug-related intervention within public settings needs to be culturally, environmentally, spatially and geographically relevant to the intended target population in order to have any meaningful benefit (e.g. reduced opportunities for needlestick injury in community settings), impact (e.g. improved community safety) and related outcome (e.g. service uptake by injecting drug users).

An experimental study of the role of vulnerability related perceptions in spider fear: comparing an imaginal and in vivo encounter

The effect of manipulating perceptions of the uncontrollability, unpredictability and dangerousness of a spider was assessed using both an imaginal and in vivo task involving an encounter with a spider. Participants were randomly assigned to one of eight conditions formed by the crossing of factors. Experimental manipulations of uncontrollability, unpredictability and dangerousness all had a significant effect on Task Related Spider Fear in the in vivo exposure task. Results indicated a greater effect on task related fear for in vivo exposure (R(2)=.258) compared to imaginal exposure (R(2)=.053). Perceptions of spiders as uncontrollable, unpredictable and dangerous accounted for much of the variance in spider fear beyond that accounted for by the experimental manipulations. The idea that perceptions of spiders as uncontrollable, unpredictable and dangerous are causally related to spider fear was supported with in vivo exposure being a stronger modality for fear modification than imaginal exposure.

Understanding animal fears: a comparison of the cognitive vulnerability and harm-looming models

BACKGROUND

The Cognitive Vulnerability Model holds that both clinical and sub-clinical manifestations of animal fears are a result of how an animal is perceived, and can be used to explain both individual differences in fear acquisition and the uneven distribution of fears in the population. This study looked at the association between fear of a number of animals and perceptions of the animals as uncontrollable, unpredictable, dangerous and disgusting. Also assessed were the perceived loomingness, prior familiarity, and negative evaluation of the animals as well as possible conditioning experiences.

METHODS

162 first-year University students rated their fear and perceptions of four high-fear and four low-fear animals.

RESULTS

Perceptions of the animals as dangerous, disgusting and uncontrollable were significantly associated with fear of both high- and low-fear animals while perceptions of unpredictability were significantly associated with fear of high-fear animals. Conditioning experiences were unrelated to fear of any animals. In multiple regression analyses, loomingness did not account for a significant amount of the variance in fear beyond that accounted for by the cognitive vulnerability variables. However, the vulnerability variables accounted for between 20% and 51% of the variance in all animals fears beyond that accounted for by perceptions of the animals as looming. Perceptions of dangerousness, uncontrollability and unpredictability were highly predictive of the uneven distribution of animal fears.

CONCLUSION

This study provides support for the Cognitive Vulnerability Model of the etiology of specific fears and phobias and brings into question the utility of the harm-looming model in explaining animal fear.

The specificity of cognitive vulnerabilities to emotional disorders: anxiety sensitivity, looming vulnerability and explanatory style

Mood and anxiety disorders share considerable phenomenological and diagnostic overlap. Several models have advanced the understanding of the phenomenological overlap of anxiety and depression; however, identification of disorder-specific etiological mechanisms remains elusive. Recently, research has advanced several cognitive vulnerability-stress models proposing that one's characteristic way of attending to, interpreting, and remembering negative events contributes vulnerability to psychopathology. These cognitive vulnerabilities may elucidate specific etiological mechanisms that distinguish mood and anxiety pathology. The present study examines the specificity of three cognitive vulnerability constructs, the looming cognitive style, anxiety sensitivity, and explanatory style, in the prediction of latent anxiety disorder symptoms and latent depression symptoms. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that the looming cognitive style demonstrated specificity predicting only anxiety disorder symptoms whereas anxiety sensitivity and a pessimistic explanatory style predicted both anxiety disorder and mood disorder symptoms. Implications for future research are discussed.

Looming threat-processing style in a cancer cohort

OBJECTIVE

Looming threat-processing style, where threats are perceived to be progressing (looming) at a frightening velocity, is implicated in anxiety vulnerability. This study aims to validate a new measure of looming, the looming cancer, and explore its clinical correlates in a chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cohort.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional design, 105 CLL patients completed the Looming Cancer Scale, Looming Cognitive Style Questionnaire (LCSQ), SF-36, Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II).

RESULTS

Exploratory factor analysis reduced the 20-item Looming Cancer Scale to a 10-item version, which demonstrated good psychometric properties (Cronbach's alpha=.926). Convergent validity was demonstrated by Pearson correlation with the LCSQ (0.418), BAI (0.380), BDI-II (0.336) and the mental component score of the SF-36 (-0.434) (all P<.001). Divergent validity was demonstrated by a lack of correlation with the SF-36 physical component score and cross tabulation frequencies of high and low loomers. High vs. low loomers showed significantly more anxiety (31% vs. 13%), depression (23% vs. 2%) and mixed anxiety-depression (18% vs. 2%). An area under the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis revealed high sensitivity (82%) and specificity (69%) in detecting mixed anxiety-depression using a cutoff score of >/=20/30.

CONCLUSIONS

The Looming Cancer Scale is a valid measurement of looming cognitive style and is the first time that the looming construct has been studied in a cancer cohort. The importance of this research lies in its potential to identify populations vulnerable to developing anxiety, depression and mixed anxiety-depression symptoms.

Does threatening imagery sensitize distress during contaminant exposure?

Prominent models of fear focus on the role of cognition in the development and maintenance of maladaptive responses. Little research, however, has evaluated the impact of cognition on distress reduction. The current study uses an experimental design to examine the effect of different types of imagery (moving harm, static harm, and safety) on reduction of distress associated with a contaminating stimulus in a normal university sample. Results indicate that use of moving harm imagery sensitizes distress during a 30-min exposure, whereas static harm and safety imagery reduce distress. These findings demonstrate that cognitive factors can moderate affective response during exposure. Clinical implications for the treatment of anxiety disorders are discussed.

The looming maladaptive style predicts shared variance in anxiety disorder symptoms: further support for a cognitive model of vulnerability to anxiety

Looming vulnerability pertains to a distinct cognitive phenomenology characterized by mental representations of dynamically intensifying danger and rapidly rising risk as one projects the self into an anticipated future [J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 79 (2000) 837]. While looming appraisals can be experienced as state elicitation, some individuals are hypothesized to develop an enduring cognitive pattern of cross-situational looming appraisals, the looming maladaptive style (LMS), which functions as a cognitive vulnerability to anxiety. In the present study, we examined the extent to which the LMS predicts common variance in numerous anxiety disorder symptoms, independent of the potentially confounding effects of current depressive symptoms. Specifically, we hypothesized that controlling for depressive symptoms, LMS would predict shared variance in a latent factor comprised of indicators of five anxiety disorder symptoms: obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, and specific phobic fears. Measures of these anxiety disorder symptoms, depressive symptoms, and looming vulnerability were administered to unselected college student population. Structural equations modeling analyses provided support for our hypothesis that LMS predicts shared variance in anxiety disorder symptoms and suggest that this cognitive style may be an overarching dimension of vulnerability to anxiety.

Disgust sensitivity and contamination fears in spider and blood-injection-injury phobias

Disgust has been implicated in the onset and maintenance of blood-injection-injury (BII) and animal phobias. Research suggests that people with these phobias are characterized by an elevated sensitivity to disgust-evoking stimuli separate from their phobic concerns. The disgust response has been described as the rejection of potential contaminants. Disgust-motivated avoidance of phobic stimuli may therefore be related to fears of contamination or infection. The present study compared BII phobics, spider phobics and nonphobics on two measures of disgust sensitivity and two measures of contamination fears. Positive correlations were found between disgust sensitivity and contamination fear. Specific phobics scored higher than nonphobics on all scales and BII phobics scored higher than spider phobics on contamination fear measures. Furthermore, the contamination fear scales were correlated with the blood phobia measure, but not correlated with the spider phobia measure. The results suggest that while both phobias are characterized by elevated disgust sensitivity, contamination fear is more prominent in BII than spider phobia.

RISK PERCEPTION FOR ACQUAINTANCE SEXUAL AGGRESSION: A SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Beliefs that people hold about sources of harm and their personal susceptibility to harm have been shown to play an important role in their subsequent self-protection. With respect to acquaintance sexual aggression, women generally report low levels of perceived personal risk and, thus, low level preparedness to prevent or protect against this form of threat. In order to develop effective resistance efforts, a more complete understanding is needed of factors that shape perception of risk and how these factors are likely to influence-both positively and negatively-women's risk reduction and self-protection. This article addresses this need by reviewing recent literature on risk perception and identifying relevant applications of theory and findings to women's perception of risk for acquaintance sexual aggression.

Using mental imagery with subclinical OCD to 'freeze' contamination in its place: evidence for looming vulnerability theory

The present research examines the possibility that 'freezing' or slowing-down the rate at which threats can advance and thereby blocking a sense of looming vulnerability can reduce fears of contamination and avoidance behavior among individuals with obsessional symptoms. Mental imagery was used to reduce the rate at which threat can advance by means of instructions to imagine that contamination was 'frozen' in place and unable to move. Measures included self-reports of anxiety and worry, and indirect assessments of fear and avoidance behavior. A parallel mental imagery condition was used to examine the possibility that accentuating the spread or contamination, or its 'looming', would in turn accentuate fear and avoidance. The results, particularly of the more unobtrusive measures, indicated that freeze imagery reduced fear and avoidance for the relatively obsessional participants. In addition, support was found that it reduced fear for participants with relatively higher levels of imagination. However, the freeze imagery paradoxically seemed to sensitize the non-obsessional participants to possibilities of contamination they had not previously considered, and thus increased their fear. The results provide support for the looming vulnerability model of anxiety and suggest applications to treatment.

Looming vulnerability to threat: a cognitive paradigm for anxiety

The concept that perceived threat or danger is a cognitive antecedent of anxiety is central in clinical psychology, personality psychology, and social psychology. The aim in the current article is to review this concept and present a new conception called the looming vulnerability model. Looming vulnerability is conceptualized as an important cognitive component of threat or danger that elicits anxiety, sensitizes the individual to signs of movement and threat, biases cognitive processing, and makes the anxiety more persistent and less likely to habituate. In addition, it is postulated as a principal theme that discriminates anxiety and focal fears from depression. The looming vulnerability model integrates a disparate collection of findings and integrates the conceptualization of anxiety and fear with ethological and developmental observations. The social-cognitive and evolutionary basis of the sense of looming vulnerability are discussed, as well as its roots in cognitive schemata (fear scripts), its state elicitation by several potential classes of antecedent conditions, and possible treatment implications.

Looming vulnerability to spreading contamination in subclinical OCD

The present study examined the hypothesis, stimulated by the looming vulnerability model of anxiety (Riskind, in press, Behaviour Research and Therapy), that subclinical OCD is associated with a subjective sense of looming vulnerability. One-hundred and four undergraduates rated vignettes of common, everyday situations involving exposure to possible dirt, germs, or contamination. Participants in a subclinical obsessional group had a far higher sense of looming vulnerability to spreading contamination than did those in a control group. Results verified that the subjective sense of looming vulnerability still had separate, distinct and significant contributions to fear-of-contamination symptoms, with the effects of cognitive appraisals of other aspects of threat (such as probability of harm, or lack of control) removed. In contrast, these other cognitive appraisals had no significant associations with symptoms that proved to be independent of the subjective sense of looming vulnerability. A path analysis further explored the dependency of these other cognitive appraisals on looming vulnerability. This analysis found that part of the effects of the subjective sense of looming vulnerability on fears may be indirect and mediated via correlated effects of other cognitive appraisals.