1
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Abdollahi M, Castaño JD, Salem JB, Beaudry F. Anandamide Modulates Thermal Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans Through Vanilloid and Cannabinoid Receptor Interplay. Neurochem Res 2024; 49:2423-2439. [PMID: 38847909 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-024-04186-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024]
Abstract
Understanding the endocannabinoid system in C. elegans may offer insights into basic biological processes and potential therapeutic targets for managing pain and inflammation in human. It is well established that anandamide modulates pain perception by binding to cannabinoid and vanilloid receptors, regulating neurotransmitter release and neuronal activity. One objective of this study was to demonstrate the suitability of C. elegans as a model organism for assessing the antinociceptive properties of bioactive compounds and learning about the role of endocannabinoid system in C. elegans. The evaluation of the compound anandamide (AEA) revealed antinociceptive activity by impeding C. elegans nocifensive response to noxious heat. Proteomic and bioinformatic investigations uncovered several pathways activated by AEA. Enrichment analysis unveiled significant involvement of ion homeostasis pathways, which are crucial for maintaining neuronal function and synaptic transmission, suggesting AEA's impact on neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Additionally, pathways related to translation, protein synthesis, and mTORC1 signaling were enriched, highlighting potential mechanisms underlying AEA's antinociceptive effects. Thermal proteome profiling identified NPR-32 and NPR-19 as primary targets of AEA, along with OCR-2, Cathepsin B, Progranulin, Transthyretin, and ribosomal proteins. These findings suggest a complex interplay between AEA and various cellular processes implicated in nociceptive pathways and inflammation modulation. Further investigation into these interactions could provide valuable insights into the therapeutic potential of AEA and its targets for the management of pain-related conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Abdollahi
- Canada Research Chair in Metrology of Bioactive Molecules and Target Discovery, Département de Biomédecine Vétérinaire, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
- Centre de recherche sur le cerveau et l'apprentissage (CIRCA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Jesus D Castaño
- Canada Research Chair in Metrology of Bioactive Molecules and Target Discovery, Département de Biomédecine Vétérinaire, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
- Centre de recherche sur le cerveau et l'apprentissage (CIRCA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Jennifer Ben Salem
- Canada Research Chair in Metrology of Bioactive Molecules and Target Discovery, Département de Biomédecine Vétérinaire, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
- Centre de recherche sur le cerveau et l'apprentissage (CIRCA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Francis Beaudry
- Canada Research Chair in Metrology of Bioactive Molecules and Target Discovery, Département de Biomédecine Vétérinaire, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada.
- Centre de recherche sur le cerveau et l'apprentissage (CIRCA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
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2
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Boylan MA, Pincetic A, Romano G, Tatton N, Kenkare-Mitra S, Rosenthal A. Targeting Progranulin as an Immuno-Neurology Therapeutic Approach. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15946. [PMID: 37958929 PMCID: PMC10647331 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Immuno-neurology is an emerging therapeutic strategy for dementia and neurodegeneration designed to address immune surveillance failure in the brain. Microglia, as central nervous system (CNS)-resident myeloid cells, routinely perform surveillance of the brain and support neuronal function. Loss-of-function (LOF) mutations causing decreased levels of progranulin (PGRN), an immune regulatory protein, lead to dysfunctional microglia and are associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases, including frontotemporal dementia caused by the progranulin gene (GRN) mutation (FTD-GRN), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), limbic-predominant age-related transactivation response deoxyribonucleic acid binding protein 43 (TDP-43) encephalopathy (LATE), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Immuno-neurology targets immune checkpoint-like proteins, offering the potential to convert aging and dysfunctional microglia into disease-fighting cells that counteract multiple disease pathologies, clear misfolded proteins and debris, promote myelin and synapse repair, optimize neuronal function, support astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and maintain brain vasculature. Several clinical trials are underway to elevate PGRN levels as one strategy to modulate the function of microglia and counteract neurodegenerative changes associated with various disease states. If successful, these and other immuno-neurology drugs have the potential to revolutionize the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders by harnessing the brain's immune system and shifting it from an inflammatory/pathological state to an enhanced physiological/homeostatic state.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Arnon Rosenthal
- Alector, Inc., 131 Oyster Point Blvd, Suite 600, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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3
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Lesnak JB, Mazhar K, Price TJ. Neuroimmune Mechanisms Underlying Post-acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC) Pain, Predictions from a Ligand-Receptor Interactome. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2023; 25:169-181. [PMID: 37300737 PMCID: PMC10256978 DOI: 10.1007/s11926-023-01107-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Individuals with post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC) complain of persistent musculoskeletal pain. Determining how COVID-19 infection produces persistent pain would be valuable for the development of therapeutics aimed at alleviating these symptoms. RECENT FINDINGS To generate hypotheses regarding neuroimmune interactions in PASC, we used a ligand-receptor interactome to make predictions about how ligands from PBMCs in individuals with COVID-19 communicate with dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons to induce persistent pain. In a structured literature review of -omics COVID-19 studies, we identified ligands capable of binding to receptors on DRG neurons, which stimulate signaling pathways including immune cell activation and chemotaxis, the complement system, and type I interferon signaling. The most consistent finding across immune cell types was an upregulation of genes encoding the alarmins S100A8/9 and MHC-I. This ligand-receptor interactome, from our hypothesis-generating literature review, can be used to guide future research surrounding mechanisms of PASC-induced pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B Lesnak
- School for Behavioral and Brain Sciences and Center for Advanced Pain Studies, University of Texas at Dallas, BSB 14.102G, Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Khadijah Mazhar
- School for Behavioral and Brain Sciences and Center for Advanced Pain Studies, University of Texas at Dallas, BSB 14.102G, Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Theodore J Price
- School for Behavioral and Brain Sciences and Center for Advanced Pain Studies, University of Texas at Dallas, BSB 14.102G, Richardson, TX, 75080, USA.
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4
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Nasser AH, Gendy AM, El-Yamany MF, El-Tanbouly DM. Upregulation of neuronal progranulin mediates the antinociceptive effect of trimetazidine in paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy: Role of ERK1/2 signaling. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 448:116096. [PMID: 35662665 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2022.116096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal progranulin (PGRN) overexpression is an endogenous adaptive pain defense following nerve injury. It allows the survival of injured neurons to block enhanced nociceptive responses. Trimetazidine (TMZ) is widely used by cardiac patients as an anti-anginal drug, reflecting its anti-ischemic property. TMZ promotes axonal regeneration of sciatic nerves after crush injury. This study explored the interplay between PGRN and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) to address mechanisms underlying neuropathic pain alleviation following paclitaxel (PTX) administration. Rats were given four injections of PTX (2 mg/kg, i.p.) every other day. Two days after the last dose, rats received TMZ (25 mg/kg) with or without the ERK inhibitor, PD98059, daily for 21 days. TMZ preserved the integrity of myelinated nerve fibers, as evidenced by an obvious reduction in axonal damage biomarkers. Accordingly, it alleviated PTX-evoked thermal, cold, and mechanical hyperalgesia/allodynia. TMZ also promoted ERK1/2 phosphorylation with a profound upsurge in PGRN content. These effects were associated with a substantial increase in Notch1 receptor gene expression and a prominent anti-inflammatory effect with a marked increase in mRNA expression of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. Further, TMZ decreased oxidative stress and caspase-3 activity in the sciatic nerve. Conversely, co-administration of PD98059 completely abolished these beneficial effects. Thus, the robust antinociceptive effect of TMZ is largely attributed to upregulating PGRN and Notch1 receptors via ERK1/2 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa H Nasser
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Abdallah M Gendy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mohammed F El-Yamany
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Dalia M El-Tanbouly
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.
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5
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Fiore NT, Yin Z, Guneykaya D, Gauthier CD, Hayes J, D’hary A, Butovsky O, Moalem-Taylor G. Sex-specific transcriptome of spinal microglia in neuropathic pain due to peripheral nerve injury. Glia 2022; 70:675-696. [PMID: 35050555 PMCID: PMC8852349 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a prevalent and debilitating chronic disease that is characterized by activation in glial cells in various pain-related regions within the central nervous system. Recent studies have suggested a sexually dimorphic role of microglia in the maintenance of neuropathic pain in rodents. Here, we utilized RNA sequencing analysis and in vitro primary cultures of microglia to identify whether there is a common neuropathic microglial signature and characterize the sex differences in microglia in pain-related regions in nerve injury and chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy mouse models. While mechanical allodynia and behavioral changes were observed in all models, transcriptomic analysis of microglia revealed no common transcriptional changes in spinal and supraspinal regions and in the different neuropathic models. However, there was a substantial change in microglial gene expression within the ipsilateral lumbar spinal cord 7 days after chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Both sexes upregulated genes associated with inflammation, phagosome, and lysosome activation, though males revealed a prominent global transcriptional shift not observed in female mice. Transcriptomic comparison between male spinal microglia after CCI and data from other nerve injury models and neurodegenerative microglia demonstrated a unique CCI-induced signature reflecting acute activation of microglia. Further, in vitro studies revealed that only male microglia from nerve-injured mice developed a reactive phenotype with increased phagocytotic activity. This study demonstrates a lack of a common neuropathic microglial signature and indicates distinct sex differences in spinal microglia, suggesting they contribute to the sex-specific pain processing following nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan T Fiore
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Zhuoran Yin
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dilansu Guneykaya
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christian D Gauthier
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jessica Hayes
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Aaron D’hary
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Oleg Butovsky
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA,Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gila Moalem-Taylor
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia,Correspondence: A/Prof. Gila Moalem-Taylor, Neuropathic Pain Research Group, Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, Wallace Wurth Building, Level 3, room 355B, The University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia, +61-2-90658014,
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6
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Human progranulin-expressing mice as a novel tool for the development of progranulin-modulating therapeutics. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 153:105314. [PMID: 33636385 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The granulin protein (also known as, and hereafter referred to as, progranulin) is a secreted glycoprotein that contributes to overall brain health. Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the progranulin protein (Granulin Precursor, GRN) are a common cause of familial frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Gene therapy approaches that aim to increase progranulin expression from a single wild-type allele, an area of active investigation for the potential treatment of GRN-dependent FTD, will benefit from the availability of a mouse model that expresses a genomic copy of the human GRN gene. Here we report the development and characterization of a novel mouse model that expresses the entire human GRN gene in its native genomic context as a single copy inserted into a defined locus (Hprt) in the mouse genome. We show that human and mouse progranulin are expressed in a similar tissue-specific pattern, suggesting that the two genes are regulated by similar mechanisms. Human progranulin rescues a phenotype characteristic of progranulin-null mice, the exaggerated and early deposition of the aging pigment lipofuscin in the brain, indicating that the two proteins are functionally similar. Longitudinal behavioural and neuropathological analyses revealed no significant differences between wild-type and human progranulin-overexpressing mice up to 18 months of age, providing evidence that long-term increase of progranulin levels is well tolerated in mice. Finally, we demonstrate that human progranulin expression can be increased in the brain using an antisense oligonucleotide that inhibits a known GRN-regulating micro-RNA, demonstrating that the transgene is responsive to potential gene therapy drugs. Human progranulin-expressing mice represent a novel and valuable tool to expedite the development of progranulin-modulating therapeutics.
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7
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8
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Rajaei S, Fatahi Y, Dabbagh A. Meeting Between Rumi and Shams in Notch Signaling; Implications for Pain Management: A Narrative Review. Anesth Pain Med 2019; 9:e85279. [PMID: 30881911 PMCID: PMC6412915 DOI: 10.5812/aapm.85279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The meeting between Rumi and Shams, in the 13th century, was a turning point in the life of Rumi leading to a revolutionary effect in his thoughts, ideas, and poems. This was an ever-inspiring meeting with many results throughout the centuries. This meeting has created some footprints in cellular and molecular medicine: The discovery of two distinct genes in Drosophila, i.e. Rumi and Shams and their role in controlling Notch signaling, which has a critical role in cell biology. This nomination and the interactions between the two genes has led us to a number of novel studies during the last years. This article reviews the interactions between Rumi and Shams and their effects on Notch signaling in order to find potential novel drugs for pain control through drug development studies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Rajaei
- Immunology Department, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yousef Fatahi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Dabbagh
- Cardiac Anesthesiology Department, Anesthesiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Corresponding Author: Cardiac Anesthesiology Department, Anesthesiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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9
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Hyung S, Im SK, Lee BY, Shin J, Park JC, Lee C, Suh JKF, Hur EM. Dedifferentiated Schwann cells secrete progranulin that enhances the survival and axon growth of motor neurons. Glia 2018; 67:360-375. [PMID: 30444070 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Schwann cells (SCs), the primary glia in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), display remarkable plasticity in that fully mature SCs undergo dedifferentiation and convert to repair SCs upon nerve injury. Dedifferentiated SCs provide essential support for PNS regeneration by producing signals that enhance the survival and axon regrowth of damaged neurons, but the identities of neurotrophic factors remain incompletely understood. Here we show that SCs express and secrete progranulin (PGRN), depending on the differentiation status of SCs. PGRN expression and secretion markedly increased as primary SCs underwent dedifferentiation, while PGRN secretion was prevented by administration of cAMP, which induced SC differentiation. We also found that sciatic nerve injury, a physiological trigger of SC dedifferentiation, induced PGRN expression in SCs in vivo. These results suggest that dedifferentiated SCs express and secrete PGRN that functions as a paracrine factor to support the survival and axon growth of neighboring neurons after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujin Hyung
- Center for Bionics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sun-Kyoung Im
- Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Bo Yoon Lee
- Center for Glia-Neuron Interaction, KIST, Seoul, South Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, and BK21 PLUS Program for Creative Veterinary Science Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jihye Shin
- Center for Theragnosis, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jong-Chul Park
- Department of Medical Engineering and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Cheolju Lee
- Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea.,Center for Theragnosis, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jun-Kyo Francis Suh
- Center for Bionics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eun-Mi Hur
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, and BK21 PLUS Program for Creative Veterinary Science Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
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10
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Chitramuthu BP, Bennett HPJ, Bateman A. Progranulin: a new avenue towards the understanding and treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Brain 2017; 140:3081-3104. [PMID: 29053785 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awx198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Progranulin, a secreted glycoprotein, is encoded in humans by the single GRN gene. Progranulin consists of seven and a half, tandemly repeated, non-identical copies of the 12 cysteine granulin motif. Many cellular processes and diseases are associated with this unique pleiotropic factor that include, but are not limited to, embryogenesis, tumorigenesis, inflammation, wound repair, neurodegeneration and lysosome function. Haploinsufficiency caused by autosomal dominant mutations within the GRN gene leads to frontotemporal lobar degeneration, a progressive neuronal atrophy that presents in patients as frontotemporal dementia. Frontotemporal dementia is an early onset form of dementia, distinct from Alzheimer's disease. The GRN-related form of frontotemporal lobar dementia is a proteinopathy characterized by the appearance of neuronal inclusions containing ubiquitinated and fragmented TDP-43 (encoded by TARDBP). The neurotrophic and neuro-immunomodulatory properties of progranulin have recently been reported but are still not well understood. Gene delivery of GRN in experimental models of Alzheimer's- and Parkinson's-like diseases inhibits phenotype progression. Here we review what is currently known concerning the molecular function and mechanism of action of progranulin in normal physiological and pathophysiological conditions in both in vitro and in vivo models. The potential therapeutic applications of progranulin in treating neurodegenerative diseases are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babykumari P Chitramuthu
- Endocrine Research Laboratory, Royal Victoria Hospital, and McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Centre for Translational Biology, Platform in Metabolic Disorders and Complications, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, QC, Canada, H4A 3J1
| | - Hugh P J Bennett
- Endocrine Research Laboratory, Royal Victoria Hospital, and McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Centre for Translational Biology, Platform in Metabolic Disorders and Complications, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, QC, Canada, H4A 3J1
| | - Andrew Bateman
- Endocrine Research Laboratory, Royal Victoria Hospital, and McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Centre for Translational Biology, Platform in Metabolic Disorders and Complications, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, QC, Canada, H4A 3J1
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11
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Zhang K, Li YJ, Guo Y, Zheng KY, Yang Q, Yang L, Wang XS, Song Q, Chen T, Zhuo M, Zhao MG. Elevated progranulin contributes to synaptic and learning deficit due to loss of fragile X mental retardation protein. Brain 2017; 140:3215-3232. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awx265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Yu-jiao Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Yanyan Guo
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Kai-yin Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Qi Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Le Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Xin-shang Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
| | - Qian Song
- Center for Neuron and Disease, Frontier Institutes of Life Science and of Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Center for Neuron and Disease, Frontier Institutes of Life Science and of Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710032, China
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology and K.K. Leung Brain Research Center, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Min Zhuo
- Center for Neuron and Disease, Frontier Institutes of Life Science and of Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Ming-gao Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, 710032l, China
- Center for Neuron and Disease, Frontier Institutes of Life Science and of Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710032, China
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12
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Schreiber S, Debska-Vielhaber G, Abdulla S, Machts J, Schreiber F, Kropf S, KÖrtvelyessy P, KÖrner S, Kollewe K, Petri S, Dengler R, Kunz WS, Nestor PJ, Vielhaber S. Peripheral nerve atrophy together with higher cerebrospinal fluid progranulin indicate axonal damage in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Muscle Nerve 2017; 57:273-278. [PMID: 28472860 DOI: 10.1002/mus.25682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We aimed to investigate whether sonographic peripheral cross-sectional nerve area (CSA) and progranulin (PGRN), a neuritic growth factor, are related to each other and whether they interact to predict clinical and paraclinical measures in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). METHODS We included 55 ALS patients who had forearm median and ulnar nerve CSA, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) PGRN, and serum PGRN measures available. CSF PGRN was normalized against the CSF / serum albumin ratio (Qalb ). Using age, sex, height, and weight adjusted general linear models, we examined CSA × CSF PGRN interaction effects on various measures. RESULTS There was a medium-effect size inverse relationship between CSA and CSF PGRN, but not between CSA and serum PGRN. Lower CSA values together with higher CSF PGRN levels were linked to smaller motor amplitudes. DISCUSSION In ALS, the constellation of peripheral nerve atrophy together with higher CSF PGRN levels indicates pronounced axonal damage. Muscle Nerve 57: 273-278, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Schreiber
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Grazyna Debska-Vielhaber
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Susanne Abdulla
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Judith Machts
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Frank Schreiber
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany.,Institute of Control Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Siegfried Kropf
- Institute of Biometry and Medical Informatics, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Peter KÖrtvelyessy
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Sonja KÖrner
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Katja Kollewe
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Susanne Petri
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Reinhard Dengler
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Wolfram S Kunz
- Division of Neurochemistry, Department of Epileptology, University Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany
| | - Peter J Nestor
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Vielhaber
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
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Altmann C, Hardt S, Fischer C, Heidler J, Lim HY, Häussler A, Albuquerque B, Zimmer B, Möser C, Behrends C, Koentgen F, Wittig I, Schmidt MH, Clement AM, Deller T, Tegeder I. Progranulin overexpression in sensory neurons attenuates neuropathic pain in mice: Role of autophagy. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 96:294-311. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Menzel L, Kleber L, Friedrich C, Hummel R, Dangel L, Winter J, Schmitz K, Tegeder I, Schäfer MKE. Progranulin protects against exaggerated axonal injury and astrogliosis following traumatic brain injury. Glia 2016; 65:278-292. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lutz Menzel
- Department of Anesthesiology; University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
| | - Lisa Kleber
- Department of Anesthesiology; University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
| | - Carina Friedrich
- Department of Anesthesiology; University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
| | - Regina Hummel
- Department of Anesthesiology; University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
| | - Larissa Dangel
- Department of Anesthesiology; University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
| | - Jennifer Winter
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
- Focus Program Translational Neurosciences (FTN) of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
| | - Katja Schmitz
- Clinical Pharmacology; Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Irmgard Tegeder
- Clinical Pharmacology; Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Michael K. E. Schäfer
- Department of Anesthesiology; University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
- Focus Program Translational Neurosciences (FTN) of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz; Germany
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15
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Altmann C, Vasic V, Hardt S, Heidler J, Häussler A, Wittig I, Schmidt MHH, Tegeder I. Progranulin promotes peripheral nerve regeneration and reinnervation: role of notch signaling. Mol Neurodegener 2016; 11:69. [PMID: 27770818 PMCID: PMC5075406 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-016-0132-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Peripheral nerve injury is a frequent cause of lasting motor deficits and chronic pain. Although peripheral nerves are capable of regrowth they often fail to re-innervate target tissues. Results Using newly generated transgenic mice with inducible neuronal progranulin overexpression we show that progranulin accelerates axonal regrowth, restoration of neuromuscular synapses and recovery of sensory and motor functions after injury of the sciatic nerve. Oppositely, progranulin deficient mice have long-lasting deficits in motor function tests after nerve injury due to enhanced losses of motor neurons and stronger microglia activation in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. Deep proteome and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that the proteins upregulated in progranulin overexpressing mice were involved in ‘regulation of transcription’ and ‘response to insulin’ (GO terms). Transcription factor prediction pointed to activation of Notch signaling and indeed, co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that progranulin bound to the extracellular domain of Notch receptors, and this was functionally associated with higher expression of Notch target genes in the dorsal root ganglia of transgenic mice with neuronal progranulin overexpression. Functionally, these transgenic mice recovered normal gait and running, which was not achieved by controls and was stronger impaired in progranulin deficient mice. Conclusion We infer that progranulin activates Notch signaling pathways, enhancing thereby the regenerative capacity of partially injured neurons, which leads to improved motor function recovery. Graphical abstract ![]()
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13024-016-0132-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Altmann
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Hospital, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Verica Vasic
- Molecular Signal Transduction Laboratories, Institute for Microscopic Anatomy and Neurobiology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefanie Hardt
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Hospital, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Juliana Heidler
- Functional Proteomics, SFB815 Core Unit, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Annett Häussler
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Hospital, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ilka Wittig
- Functional Proteomics, SFB815 Core Unit, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Mirko H H Schmidt
- Molecular Signal Transduction Laboratories, Institute for Microscopic Anatomy and Neurobiology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Irmgard Tegeder
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Hospital, Frankfurt, Germany.
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17
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Yan H, Hong P, Jiang M, Li H. MicroRNAs as potential therapeutics for treating spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2015; 7:1352-9. [PMID: 25657667 PMCID: PMC4308808 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.17.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs are a class of recently discovered, small non-coding RNAs that have been shown to play essential roles in a vast majority of biological processes. Very little is known about the role of microRNAs during spinal cord injury. This review summarizes the changes in expression levels of microRNAs after spinal cord injury. These aberrant changes suggest that microRNAs play an important role in inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, glial scar formation and axonal regeneration. Given their small size and specificity of action, microRNAs could be potential therapeutics for treating spinal cord injury in the future. There are rapidly developing techniques for manipulating microRNA levels in animals; we review different chemical modification and delivery strategies. These may provide platforms for designing efficient microRNA delivery protocols for use in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hualin Yan
- West China Developmental & Stem Cell Institute, Department of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric, Key Laboratory of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China ; West China Medical School, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Peiwei Hong
- West China Developmental & Stem Cell Institute, Department of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric, Key Laboratory of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Mei Jiang
- West China Developmental & Stem Cell Institute, Department of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric, Key Laboratory of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Hedong Li
- West China Developmental & Stem Cell Institute, Department of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric, Key Laboratory of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
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Lötsch J, Hummel T, Warskulat U, Coste O, Häussinger D, Geisslinger G, Tegeder I. Congenital taurine deficiency in mice is associated with reduced sensitivity to nociceptive chemical stimulation. Neuroscience 2013; 259:63-70. [PMID: 24321512 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.11.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The amino acid taurine is required for development and functioning of the central and peripheral nervous system where it exerts osmoregulatory, neuromodulatory and anti-apoptotic actions. It is subject to cellular import by the taurine transporter slc6a6. Absence of the transporter and consequently, absence of taurine leads to several neurologic deficits and sensory losses. In a slc6a6 knock-out mouse model, consequences of congenital taurine deficiency were assessed in nociceptive sensory processes. The formalin assay, hot plate assay, and summated generator potentials in response to local nociceptive stimulation with gaseous CO2 were applied. Reduced responsiveness of slc6a6(-/-) mice to nociceptive stimulation was observed in particular to chemical nociceptive stimuli. Scl6a6 knock-out mice spent significantly less time licking the formalin injected paw and displayed smaller amplitudes of the nociceptive nasal mucosa potentials than wild-type mice (p=0.002 and 0.01 respectively). In contrast, withdrawal latencies on a hot plate did not significantly differ, suggesting that intracellular taurine deficits lead in particular to a hyposensitivity of nociceptive sensory neurons sensitive to noxious chemical stimulation. As hereditary absence of taurine affects biological processes of anatomical structure development, the altered nociceptive responses likely reflect consequences of compromised peripheral nervous system development.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lötsch
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute of Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology-Project Group Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (IME-TMP), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - T Hummel
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University of Dresden Medical School, Fetscherstr. 74, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - U Warskulat
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University, Moorenstraße 5, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - O Coste
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - D Häussinger
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University, Moorenstraße 5, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - G Geisslinger
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute of Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology-Project Group Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (IME-TMP), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - I Tegeder
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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Albuquerque B, Häussler A, Vannoni E, Wolfer DP, Tegeder I. Learning and memory with neuropathic pain: impact of old age and progranulin deficiency. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:174. [PMID: 24319417 PMCID: PMC3837228 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent neuropathic pain is a frequent consequence of peripheral nerve injuries, particularly in the elderly. Using the IntelliCage we studied if sciatic nerve injury obstructed learning and memory in young and aged mice, each in wild type and progranulin deficient mice, which develop premature signs of brain aging. Both young and aged mice developed long-term nerve injury-evoked hyperalgesia and allodynia. In both genotypes, aged mice with neuropathic pain showed high error rates in place avoidance acquisition tasks. However, once learnt, these aged mice with neuropathic pain showed a significantly stronger maintenance of the aversive memory. Nerve injury did not affect place preference behavior in neither genotype, neither in young nor aged mice. However, nerve injury in progranulin deficient mice impaired the learning of spatial sequences of awarded places, particularly in the aged mice. This task required a discrimination of clockwise and anti-clockwise sequences. The chaining failure occurred only in progranulin deficient mice after nerve injury, but not in sham operated or wildtype mice, suggesting that progranulin was particularly important for compensatory adaptations after nerve injury. In contrast, all aged mice with neuropathic pain, irrespective of the genotype, had a long maintenance of aversive memory suggesting a negative alliance and possibly mutual aggravation of chronic neuropathic pain and aversive memory at old age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Albuquerque
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt, Goethe-University Hospital Frankfurt am Main Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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Kleinberger G, Capell A, Haass C, Van Broeckhoven C. Mechanisms of granulin deficiency: lessons from cellular and animal models. Mol Neurobiol 2012; 47:337-60. [PMID: 23239020 PMCID: PMC3538123 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-012-8380-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 11/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The identification of causative mutations in the (pro)granulin gene (GRN) has been a major breakthrough in the research on frontotemporal dementia (FTD). So far, all FTD-associated GRN mutations are leading to neurodegeneration through a “loss-of-function” mechanism, encouraging researchers to develop a growing number of cellular and animal models for GRN deficiency. GRN is a multifunctional secreted growth factor, and loss of its function can affect different cellular processes. Besides loss-of-function (i.e., mostly premature termination codons) mutations, which cause GRN haploinsufficiency through reduction of GRN expression, FTD-associated GRN missense mutations have also been identified. Several of these missense mutations are predicted to increase the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases through altering various key biological properties of GRN-like protein secretion, proteolytic processing, and neurite outgrowth. With the use of cellular and animal models for GRN deficiency, the portfolio of GRN functions has recently been extended to include functions in important biological processes like energy and protein homeostasis, inflammation as well as neuronal survival, neurite outgrowth, and branching. Furthermore, GRN-deficient animal models have been established and they are believed to be promising disease models as they show accelerated aging and recapitulate at least some neuropathological features of FTD. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms leading to GRN deficiency and the lessons we learned from the established cellular and animal models. Furthermore, we discuss how these insights might help in developing therapeutic strategies for GRN-associated FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gernot Kleinberger
- Neurodegenerative Brain Diseases Group, VIB Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Antwerp-CDE, Universiteitsplein 1, Antwerp, 2610, Belgium
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Jian J, Konopka J, Liu C. Insights into the role of progranulin in immunity, infection, and inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2012; 93:199-208. [PMID: 23089745 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0812429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
PGRN, a pleiotrophic growth factor, is known to play an important role in the maintenance and regulation of the homeostatic dynamics of normal tissue development, proliferation, regeneration, and the host-defense response and therefore, has been widely studied in the fields of infectious diseases, wound healing, tumorigenesis, and neuroproliferative and degenerative diseases. PGRN has also emerged as a multifaceted immune-regulatory molecule through regulating the signaling pathways known to be critical for immunology, especially TNF/TNFR signaling. In this review, we start with updates about the interplays of PGRN with ECM proteins, proteolytic enzymes, inflammatory cytokines, and cell-surface receptors, as well as various pathophysiological processes involved. We then review the data supporting an emerging role of PGRN in the fields of the "Cubic of I", namely, immunity, infection, and inflammation, with special focus on its regulation of autoimmune syndromes. We conclude with insights into the immunomodulating, anti-inflammatory, therapeutic potential of PGRN in treating diseases with an inflammatory etiology in a vast range of medical specialties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlong Jian
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New York University Medical Center, New York, New York 10003, USA
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