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Xia Z, Hu J, Han L, Xia Q, Shao F, Lin X. Effect of unilateral testicular torsion on contralateral testis in a rat model. Pediatr Surg Int 2020; 36:529-536. [PMID: 32072235 DOI: 10.1007/s00383-020-04626-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the function of the contralateral testis after unilateral testicular torsion (UTT) and its possible mechanism. METHODS 56 rats were randomly divided into four groups: Group A: Sham operation, Group B: Testicular torsion (TT)+normal saline (NS), Group C: Testicular torsion (TT)+cyclosporine, Group D: Testicular torsion (TT)+NG-Monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA). The right testes were removed 1 week and 8 weeks after surgery, respectively. Biochemistry and histopathologic evaluations were used to evaluate the germ cell damage. RESULTS Compared with Group A, the levels of malondialchehyche (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO)/nitricoxide synthase (NOS) were increased remarkably in Group B. Significant differences were shown between histopathological damages and density and motility of sperm in two groups. Compared with Group B, the levels of MDA and NO/NOS in Group D decreased significantly while mean seminiferous tubule diameter (MSTD) and mean testicular biopsy scoring (MTBS) maintained in a better condition. The levels of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) peptide-tetramer complex in Group C and Group D decreased significantly than Group B, while sperm density and motility were significantly higher than Group B. It was also known that the histopathological damages in Group C and Group D were less than those in Group B in the 8 weeks after operation. CONCLUSION UTT can cause impairment of contralateral testicular function and decrease of spermatogenic function. The mechanism may be related to ischemia-reperfusion (IR) in early stage and autoimmune response in late stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaobo Xia
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jun Hu
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lei Han
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Qiongzhang Xia
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fangbin Shao
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaokun Lin
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, Zhejiang, China.
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Singh SK, Larsson M, Schön T, Stendahl O, Blomgran R. HIV Interferes with the Dendritic Cell-T Cell Axis of Macrophage Activation by Shifting Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Specific CD4 T Cells into a Dysfunctional Phenotype. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 202:816-826. [PMID: 30593540 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
HIV coinfection is the greatest risk factor for transition of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection into active tuberculosis (TB). Epidemiological data reveal both the reduction and the impairment of M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cells, although the cellular link and actual mechanisms resulting in immune impairment/suppression need further characterization. M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cells play a central role in development of protective immunity against TB, in which they participate in the activation of macrophages through the dendritic cell (DC)-T cell axis. Using an in vitro priming system for generating Ag-specific T cells, we explored if HIV-M. tuberculosis-infected (coinfected) human DCs can dysregulate the M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cell phenotype and functionality and subsequently mediate the failure to control M. tuberculosis infection in macrophages. After coculture with coinfected DCs, M. tuberculosis Ag-specific CD4 T cells lost their ability to enhance control of M. tuberculosis infection in infected macrophages. Coinfection of DCs reduced proliferation of M. tuberculosis Ag-specific CD4 T cells without affecting their viability, led to increased expression of coinhibitory factors CTLA-4, PD-1, and Blimp-1, and decreased expression of costimulatory molecules CD40L, CD28, and ICOS on the T cells. Expression of the regulatory T cell markers FOXP3 and CD25, together with the immunosuppressive cytokines TGF-β and IL-10, was also significantly increased by coinfection compared with M. tuberculosis single infection. Our data suggest a pattern in which HIV, through its effect on DCs, impairs the ability of M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cells to maintain a latent TB within human macrophages, which could play an early role in the subsequent development of TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita K Singh
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Marie Larsson
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden; and
| | - Thomas Schön
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Kalmar County Hospital, 391 85 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Olle Stendahl
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Robert Blomgran
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden;
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3
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Singh SK, Andersson AM, Ellegård R, Lindestam Arlehamn CS, Sette A, Larsson M, Stendahl O, Blomgran R. HIV Interferes with Mycobacterium tuberculosis Antigen Presentation in Human Dendritic Cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2016; 186:3083-3093. [PMID: 27746182 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
HIV coinfection is the most prominent risk factor for progression of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection into active tuberculosis (TB) disease. The mechanisms behind the increased transition from latent to active TB in coinfected individuals have not been well elucidated at the cellular level. We hypothesized that HIV infection contributes to Mtb pathogenesis by interfering with the dendritic cell (DC)-mediated immune control. Mtb-antigen processing and presentation are key events in the immune response against TB. Human immature DCs coinfected with HIV/Mtb had decreased expression of human leukocyte antigen antigen D related and the costimulatory molecules CD40, CD80, and CD86. In addition, Mtb-infected DCs triggered a significant release of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α, whereas coinfected DCs did not. To assess the DC antigen presentation capacity, we measured interferon-γ from co-cultures of DCs and autologous Mtb antigen-specific CD4+ T cells. Interferon-γ release was significantly reduced when purified protein derivative- and Ag85B-specific CD4+ T cells had been activated with coinfected DCs compared to Mtb-infected DCs, and this effect was attributed to Mtb antigen processing rather than peptide-major histocompatibility complex class II loading. Evaluating autophagy as a measure of vesicular processing and maturation further revealed that HIV efficiently blocks initiation of this pathway during coinfection. Overall, our results demonstrate that HIV impairs Mtb antigen presentation in DCs, thereby suppressing an important cell linking innate and adaptive immune response in TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita K Singh
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Anna-Maria Andersson
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Rada Ellegård
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | | | - Alessandro Sette
- Department of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
| | - Marie Larsson
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Olle Stendahl
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Robert Blomgran
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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Tjomsland V, Ellegård R, Che K, Hinkula J, Lifson JD, Larsson M. Complement opsonization of HIV-1 enhances the uptake by dendritic cells and involves the endocytic lectin and integrin receptor families. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23542. [PMID: 21853149 PMCID: PMC3154940 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Interaction with the complement system is an underappreciated aspect of HIV-1 infection; even in primary infection, complement fragments are found on virions with potential to affect the interplay between the virus and dendritic cells (DC). Since opsonization may affect the efficiency of uptake and the type of receptors utilized, we compared the interactions of DC with free HIV-1 (F-HIV) and complement opsonized HIV-1 (C-HIV). We demonstrate that C-HIV significantly enhanced the uptake by immature DC (IDC) and mature DC (MDC) and that the internalization rate was dependent on both opsonization of the virus and DC maturation state. Increased DC uptake of C-HIV was not due to opsonization related increased binding of virus to the surface of DC but rather increased internalization of C-HIV despite utilizing a similar repertoire of receptors as F-HIV. Both F-HIV and C-HIV interacted with C-type lectins, integrins, and CD4 and blocking these receptor families prevented HIV-1 from binding to DC at 4°C. Blocking integrins significantly reduced the binding and uptake of F-HIV and C-HIV implicating the involvement of several integrins such as β1-integrin, CR3, LFA-1, and α4β7. Distinctive for C-HIV was usage of β1-integrin and for F-HIV, usage of β7-integrin, whereas both F-HIV and C-HIV utilized both integrin chains of CR3. We have in this study identified the receptor types used by both F-HIV and C-HIV to bind to DC. Noteworthy, C-HIV was internalized more efficiently by DC than F-HIV, probably via receptor mediated endocytosis, which may entail different intracellular processing of the virus leading to both elevated infection and altered activation of HIV specific immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Tjomsland
- Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Rada Ellegård
- Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Karlhans Che
- Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Jorma Hinkula
- Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Jeffrey D. Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC Frederick, Inc., National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Marie Larsson
- Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Jenabian MA, Saïdi H, Charpentier C, Bouhlal H, Schols D, Balzarini J, Bell TW, Vanham G, Bélec L. Differential activity of candidate microbicides against early steps of HIV-1 infection upon complement virus opsonization. AIDS Res Ther 2010; 7:16. [PMID: 20546571 PMCID: PMC2895573 DOI: 10.1186/1742-6405-7-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-1 in genital secretions may be opsonized by several molecules including complement components. Opsonized HIV-1 by complement enhances the infection of various mucosal target cells, such as dendritic cells (DC) and epithelial cells. Results We herein evaluated the effect of HIV-1 complement opsonization on microbicide candidates' activity, by using three in vitro mucosal models: CCR5-tropic HIV-1JR-CSF transcytosis through epithelial cells, HIV-1JR-CSF attachment on immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells (iMDDC), and infectivity of iMDDC by CCR5-tropic HIV-1BaL and CXCR4-tropic HIV-1NDK. A panel of 10 microbicide candidates [T20, CADA, lectines HHA & GNA, PVAS, human lactoferrin, and monoclonal antibodies IgG1B12, 12G5, 2G12 and 2F5], were investigated using cell-free unopsonized or opsonized HIV-1 by complements. Only HHA and PVAS were able to inhibit HIV trancytosis. Upon opsonization, transcytosis was affected only by HHA, HIV-1 adsorption on iMDDC by four molecules (lactoferrin, IgG1B12, IgG2G5, IgG2G12), and replication in iMDDC of HIV-1BaL by five molecules (lactoferrin, CADA, T20, IgG1B12, IgG2F5) and of HIV-1NDK by two molecules (lactoferrin, IgG12G5). Conclusion These observations demonstrate that HIV-1 opsonization by complements may modulate in vitro the efficiency of candidate microbicides to inhibit HIV-1 infection of mucosal target cells, as well as its crossing through mucosa.
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6
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Sakaue T, Takeuchi K, Maeda T, Yamamoto Y, Nishi K, Ohkubo I. Factor H in porcine seminal plasma protects sperm against complement attack in genital tracts. J Biol Chem 2009; 285:2184-92. [PMID: 19920146 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.063495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We found that factor H (FH) exists in porcine seminal plasma. Purified FH strongly inhibited serum alternative pathway complement activation against lipopolysaccharide. The molecular weight, pI, and heparin-binding activity of the purified protein were different from those of purified FH from porcine serum. The complement regulatory activity of seminal plasma FH was approximately 2-fold stronger than that of serum FH. Treatment of purified serum FH with sialidase and N-glycosidase F gave almost the same results as those of seminal plasma FH. The deletion of sialic acid from the carbohydrate chains of both FHs contributed to heparin-binding and complement regulatory activities. Results of reverse transcriptase-PCR, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry showed that seminal plasma FH is mainly secreted from epithelial cells of the seminal vesicle in male genital tracts. FH was also detected in the outer acrosomal region of ejaculated sperm by immunofluorescence staining, and found that the purified FH from the sperm membrane has the same complement regulatory activity as that of seminal plasma FH. The ejaculated sperm possessing FH in the outer acrosomal region considerably evaded complement attack. We also found that there is strong complement activity in fluids from female genital tract ducts. These findings indicate that FH bound to the outer acrosomal region and soluble FH play important roles in protecting sperm against complement attack in male and female genital tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohisa Sakaue
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta, Otsu 520-2192
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7
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Bouhlal H, Chomont N, Réquena M, Nasreddine N, Saidi H, Legoff J, Kazatchkine MD, Bélec L, Hocini H. Opsonization of HIV with complement enhances infection of dendritic cells and viral transfer to CD4 T cells in a CR3 and DC-SIGN-dependent manner. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:1086-95. [PMID: 17202372 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.2.1086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we demonstrated that opsonization of primary HIV-1 with human complement enhances infection of immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells (iDC) and transmission in trans of HIV to autologous CD4(+) T lymphocytes. Infection of iDC by opsonized primary R5- and X4-tropic HIV was increased 3- to 5-fold as compared with infection by the corresponding unopsonized HIV. Enhancement of infection was dependent on CR3 as demonstrated by inhibition induced by blocking Abs. The interaction of HIV with CCR5 and CXCR4 on iDC was affected by opsonization. Indeed, stromal-derived factor-1 was more efficient in inhibiting infection of iDC with opsonized R5-tropic HIV-1(BaL) (45%) than with heat-inactivated complement opsonized virus and similarly RANTES inhibited more efficiently infection of iDC with opsonized X4-tropic HIV-1(NDK) (42%) than with heat-inactivated complement opsonized virus. We also showed that attachment of complement-opsonized virus to DC-specific ICAM-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN) molecule on iDC and HeLa DC-SIGN(+) CR3(-) cells was 46% and 50% higher compared with heat-inactivated complement opsonized virus, respectively. Hence, Abs to DC-SIGN suppressed up to 80% and 60% the binding of opsonized virus to HeLa cells and iDC, respectively. Furthermore, Abs to DC-SIGN inhibited up to 70% of the infection of iDC and up to 65% of infection in trans of autologous lymphocytes with opsonized virus. These results further demonstrated the role of DC-SIGN in complement opsonized virus uptake and infection. Thus, the virus uses complement to its advantage to facilitate early steps leading to infection following mucosal transmission of HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hicham Bouhlal
- Université René Descartes Paris V and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 743, Institut des Cordeliers, Paris, France.
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8
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Kelly VC, Kuy S, Palmer DJ, Xu Z, Davis SR, Cooper GJ. Characterization of bovine seminal plasma by proteomics. Proteomics 2007; 6:5826-33. [PMID: 17001600 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200500830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Previous investigations of bovine seminal plasma (BSP) have revealed the identities of the three major proteins, BSP-PDC109, BSP-A3 and BSP-30 kDa, which together constitute about half of the total protein, as well as about 30 of the minor proteins. Analyses of BSP by 2-DE have revealed about 250 protein spots, suggesting that much of the BSP proteome remains undescribed. In this study, BSP has been analyzed by 2-D LC-based and SDS-PAGE-based proteomic methods. Ninety-nine proteins were identified, including 49 minor proteins that have not previously been described in seminal plasma of any species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van C Kelly
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Abstract
The role of alloantibodies against HLA and non-HLA targets is becoming increasingly recognized as critical in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic renal allograft outcomes. This review discusses the antigenic targets, the mechanisms of T and B cell activation that result in the production of antibody, the complement cascade, methods of antibody detection, and the evidence that alloantibody-mediated mechanisms are active in acute and chronic rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn J Tinckam
- Transplantation Research Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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10
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Abstract
Spermatozoa are almost unique among cells in that they must survive transplantation into a foreign host in order to perform their physiological role. The biggest hurdle to overcome is innate immune defence that will target the invaders in the female genital tract. Complement is a major player in innate immunity and is present in the female genital tract. Spermatozoa must therefore evade complement attack if they are to reach their goal. Complement evasion is achieved by the presence of complement regulators both in seminal plasma and on the spermatozoa. Here we discuss the parts played by complement and complement regulators in permitting spermatozoa to survive long enough to reach the oocyte, in clearance of the excess spermatozoa that have outlived their usefulness and in aiding activation of spermatozoa to engage the oocyte. In particular, we focus on the unique distribution patterns of complement regulators on spermatozoa, patterns that strongly suggest roles in spermatozoal development and oocyte binding. An understanding of these roles will inform studies of their contribution to fertility and infertility in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L Harris
- Complement Biology Group, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Health park, Cardiff CF 14 4XN, UK
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Abstract
The complement system is old, yet it may still have something new to teach us. For many years, research has existed which shows that C3d, in addition to its established role as an adjuvant, could have an immunosuppressive activity. Being true, it suggests that a common mechanism may be used both by organisms and by their pathogens to prevent unwanted immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bennett
- Section for Immunology, BMC, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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Shibahara H, Hirano Y, Takamizawa S, Sato I. Effect of sperm-immobilizing antibodies bound to the surface of ejaculated human spermatozoa on sperm motility in immunologically infertile men. Fertil Steril 2003; 79:641-2. [PMID: 12620458 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-0282(02)04702-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Shibahara
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jichi Medical School, Tochigi, Japan.
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Bouhlal H, Chomont N, Haeffner-Cavaillon N, Kazatchkine MD, Belec L, Hocini H. Opsonization of HIV-1 by semen complement enhances infection of human epithelial cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:3301-6. [PMID: 12218150 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.6.3301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we demonstrate that both X4- and R5-tropic HIV-1 strains are able to infect the human epithelial cell line HT-29. Infection was enhanced 2-fold when HIV was added to semen before contact with the cell cultures. The enhancing effect of semen was complement dependent, as evidenced by blockage of generation of C3a/C3a(desArg) in semen by heat or EDTA treatment of semen and suppression of semen-dependent enhancement with mAbs directed to complement receptor type 3 (CD11b/CD18) and soluble CD16. Infection of HT-29 cells was assessed by the release of p24 Ag in cultures and semiquantitative PCR of the HIV-1 pol gene. Inhibition of infection of HT-29 by stromal cell-derived factor 1 was decreased in the case of semen-opsonized X4- and R5-tropic virus compared with unopsonized virus. In contrast, inhibition of infection by RANTES was increased for opsonized X4-tropic HIV-1 compared with unopsonized virus. Taken together these observations indicate that activation of complement in semen may play an enhancing role in mucosal transmission of HIV-1 by facilitating infection of epithelial cells and/or enhancing infection of complement receptor-expressing target cells in the mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hicham Bouhlal
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 430, and Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
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