Pain management during eye examinations for retinopathy of prematurity in preterm infants: a systematic review

Retinopathy of prematurity screening: can the examination time be reduced?

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a significant cause of childhood blindness. Screening examinations that maintain accuracy, while improving the experience for families, could increase adherence to follow-up and decrease workload.

BACKGROUND

Traditional ROP screening examinations are known to be uncomfortable for babies and stressful for parents. A new strategy is proposed and tested for the accuracy of the outcome and the time taken.

METHODS

In this new screening strategy, the examiner performs a complete retinal examination on the first visit. If the area and stage of the nasal and temporal retinal regions are similar or the stage of the temporal half is worse, only the posterior pole and temporal half of the retina are evaluated at subsequent visits. A retrospective patient file review was conducted to compare the new proposal with accepted methods. ROP examination time was compared prospectively.

RESULTS

The data of 57 consecutive patients treated for ROP were evaluated. The ROP zone was the same in the nasal and temporal retina in all eyes at the first and last visit before treatment. Only two eyes had worse ROP stage in the nasal half at presentation but both halves developed the same degree of stage during follow-up. None of the treatment decisions were based only on the nasal region of the retina. Examination time was evaluated in 40 eyes of 20 infants. The average total time required for an examination with the accepted method was 241.3 ± 112.5 seconds. However, with the proposed strategy, the examination time was significantly reduced to 172.3 ± 69.2 seconds (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This screening strategy shortens examination time, which may help reduce pain and related adverse events.

'All for the well-being of the infant': nurses' perceptions of preterm infants' eye examinations: a phenomenographic study

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants are at risk of complications due to their prematurity and Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP) is one of them. To discover and treat ROP the preterm infants regularly undergo eye examinations. Nurses are responsible for the infants' care during this painful and stressful procedure.

AIM

The aim of this study was to explore nurses' perceptions of preterm infants' eye examinations.

METHODS

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 10 nurses experienced in participating in preterm infants' eye examinations. Data were analysed using a phenomenographic approach.

RESULTS

The results showed several perceptions of the eye examinations, and the analysis resulted in four descriptive categories: Infants are affected by the eye examination; Nurses have comprehensive overall responsibility for the infants; Parents are important to their infants, but they need support to fulfil their parental role, and Collaboration is important for the examination's favourable outcome. The category Nurses have comprehensive overall responsibility for the infants was regarded as the most comprehensive, covering all the other categories.

CONCLUSIONS

Nurses felt a great responsibility during a painful and stressful procedure for preterm infants. Infants' well-being could be better protected by interprofessional collaboration, improved nursing care and involved parents.

Risk factor-based models to predict severe retinopathy of prematurity in preterm Thai infants

PURPOSE

To develop prediction models for severe retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) based on risk factors in preterm Thai infants to reduce unnecessary eye examinations in low-risk infants.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included preterm infants screened for ROP in a tertiary hospital in Bangkok, Thailand, between September 2009 and December 2020. A predictive score model and a risk factor-based algorithm were developed based on the risk factors identified by a multivariate logistic regression analysis. Validity scores, and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs), were reported.

RESULTS

The mean gestational age and birth weight (standard deviation) of 845 enrolled infants were 30.3 (2.6) weeks and 1264.9 (398.1) g, respectively. The prevalence of ROP was 26.2%. Independent risk factors across models included gestational age, birth weight, no antenatal steroid use, postnatal steroid use, duration of oxygen supplementation, and weight gain during the first 4 weeks of life. The predictive score had a sensitivity (95% CI) of 92.2% (83.0, 96.6), negative predictive value (NPV) of 99.2% (98.1, 99.6), and negative likelihood ratio (NLR) of 0.1. The risk factor-based algorithm revealed a sensitivity of 100% (94, 100), NPV of 100% (99, 100), and NLR of 0. Similar validity was observed when "any oxygen supplementation" replaced "duration of oxygen supplementation." Predictive score, unmodified, and modified algorithms reduced eye examinations by 71%, 43%, and 16%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our risk factor-based algorithm offered an efficient approach to reducing unnecessary eye examinations while maintaining the safety of infants at risk of severe ROP. Prospective validation of the model is required.

Effects of fentanyl and sucrose on pain in retinopathy examinations with pain scale, near-infrared spectroscopy, and ultrasonography: a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to compare the efficacy of intravenous, intranasal fentanyl and oral sucrose in reducing the pain response during retinopathy of prematurity examinations using premature infant pain profile (PIPP) scores.

METHOD

The study included 42 infants who underwent retinopathy screening examinations. The infants were divided into three groups: oral sucrose, intranasal fentanyl, and intravenous fentanyl. Vital signs (heart rate, arterial oxygen saturation, and mean arterial pressure) were recorded. The PIPP was used to determine pain severity. Cerebral oxygenation and middle cerebral artery blood flow were evaluated using near-infrared spectroscopy and Doppler ultrasonography, respectively. The data obtained were compared between groups.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference between the three groups regarding postconceptional and postnatal ages or birth weights and weight at the time of examination. All babies had moderate pain during the examination. No correlation was observed between analgesia method and pain scores (P = 0.159). In all three groups, heart rate and mean arterial pressure increased, whereas oxygen saturation decreased during the exam compared with pre-examination values. However, heart rate (HR), mean arterial pressure (MAP) and arterial oxygen saturation (sPO2) values did not differ between groups (HR, P = 0.150; MAP, P = 0.245; sPO2, P = 0.140). The cerebral oxygenation (rSO2) values between the three groups were found to be similar [rSO2: P = 0.545, P = 0.247, P = 0.803; fractional tissue oxygen extraction (FTOE): P = 0.553, P = 0.278]. Regarding cerebral blood flow values, we also did not find any difference between the three groups [mean blood flow velocity (Vmean): P = 0.569, P = 0.975; maximum flow velocity (Vmax): P = 0.820, P = 0.997].

CONCLUSIONS

Intravenous and intranasal fentanyl and oral sucrose were not superior to each other in preventing pain during the examination for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Sucrose may be a good alternative for pain control during ROP examination. Our findings suggest that ROP exam may not affect cerebral oxygenation or cerebral blood flow. Larger scale studies are needed to determine the best pharmacological option to reduce pain during ROP exams and evaluate the effects of this procedure on cerebral oxygenation and blood flow.

A systematic review of improved positions and supporting devices for premature infants in the NICU

Background

In the neonatal intensive care unit, nurses often place premature infants in the supine, prone, and lateral positions. However, these positions do not always meet all the physiological needs of premature infants. Thus, many improved positions and various position-supporting devices have been studied to provide infants with a development-friendly and comfortable environment.

Aim

We aimed to help nurses recognize and understand the various improved positions and devices, and to provide nurses with more options in addressing the needs of preterm infants.

Study design

We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE from 2012 to 2022 for studies on position management of preterm infants, and screened the search results according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. Then we extracted data and evaluated the quality of the included studies. Finally, we conducted a qualitative summary of the results.

Results

Twenty-one articles were included in this review. Fourteen were studies about improved positions, including hammock position, facilitated tucking position, ROP position, reverse kangaroo mother care position (R-KMC), and supported diagonal flexion position (SDF). Seven were studies on positioning devices, four on cranial deformity prevention, and three on reformative swaddling. They have a positive impact on sleep and flexion maintenance, in addition, they can prevent head deformity and reduce the pain of premature infants.

Conclusion

The position management of premature infants is diversified. Instead of sticking to a single position placement, nurses should adjust the position according to the unique physiological conditions of infants to reduce sequelae and promote their recovery and growth during long-term hospitalization. There should be more studies on position management with large sample sizes in the future.

A Survey of Neonatal Nurses on Mydriatic Regimens Used in Neonatal Retinopathy of Prematurity Eye Examinations

OBJECTIVE

This study was aimed to determine mydriatic regimen(s) used in neonatal units in Aotearoa, New Zealand (NZ), and Australia and to estimate the frequency of adverse drug events following mydriatic administration in preterm neonates.

STUDY DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey was sent to neonatal nursing staff listed in the Australian and New Zealand Neonatal Network contact list. Participants were asked to state what mydriatic regimen they use, and to estimate the frequency of adverse drug events when eye drops were administered for retinopathy of prematurity eye examinations (ROPEE).

RESULTS

Thirteen different mydriatic regimens were identified; phenylephrine 2.5% and cyclopentolate 0.5% (1 standard drop of each) was the most commonly used regimen. Two of the regimens exceeded adult doses and five regimens included a mydriatic that is equivalent to an adult dose. Following mydriatic instillation, the three most common adverse effects were apnea, tachycardia, and periorbital pallor.

CONCLUSION

Low-concentration single-microdrop regimens are currently in use and resulting in successful ROPEE, yet doses exceeding adult doses are in use throughout Aotearoa, NZ, and Australian units. We know from this dataset that neonates are experiencing unwanted and potentially preventable, adverse effects associated with mydriatics, and every effort should be made to minimize this risk.

KEY POINTS

· Thirteen different regimens are in use in Aotearoa, NZ, and Australia.. · Three regimens use doses in excess of adult doses.. · Phenylephrine 2.5% and cyclopentolate 0.5% (one standard drop of each) is the most common regimen.

Clonidine as analgesia during retinopathy of prematurity screening in preterm infants (cloROP): protocol for a randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Preterm infants are at risk of negative consequences from stress and pain at the same time as they often are in need of intensive care that includes painful interventions. One of the frequent painful procedures preterm infants undergo is eye examination screening to detect early signs of ROP (retinopathy of prematurity). These examinations are both stressful and painful, and despite a multitude of research studies, no conclusive pain-relieving treatment has been demonstrated. The main aim of this trial is to investigate the analgesic effect of clonidine during ROP eye examinations.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The planned study is a multicentre randomised controlled trial with a crossover design. Infants will be recruited from two different neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) in Sweden. Infants born before gestation week 30 (and therefore eligible for ROP screening) and cared for in either of the NICUs will be eligible for inclusion in the study. The primary outcome will be Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised score within 30 s after starting the examination. Secondary outcomes will be changes in the galvanic skin response parameters (area small peaks, area huge peaks, peaks per second and average rise time) within 30 s after starting the eye examination, together with the number and evaluation of adverse events reported within 72 hours after the examination and the examining physician's assessment of how easy the infant was to examine.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Approval from the Swedish Ethical Review Authority and the Swedish Medical Products Agency has been obtained for the study. Parents of eligible infants will be getting both verbal and written information about the study including that participation is voluntary. Data will be collected and treated in accordance with the European general data protection regulations. The results will be reported on group level and published in a scientific journal.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04902859).EudraCT (2021-003005-21).

Avoiding use of lid speculum and indentation reduced infantile stress during retinopathy of prematurity examinations

PURPOSE

To study the safety and efficacy of indirect ophthalmoscopy with (Sp) or without (speculum free, SpF) the use of lid speculum and scleral indentation for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) screening.

METHODS

In this crossover randomized controlled trial, preterm infants received either the Sp on their first and the SpF technique on their second examination a week later or vice versa. Video recordings of the infants' reactions were assessed by two observers, using Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised score and the crying score of the Bernese Pain Scale for Neonates. Fundoscopy adequacy, its duration and adverse events within the first 24 hr postscreening were also recorded.

RESULTS

Thirty-seven infants with median (interquartile range) gestational age of 28.7 (28.0, 30.2) weeks and mean (standard deviation, SD) birth weight 1225 (377) grams were enrolled. The mydriasis-induced stress was similar between the Sp and SpF exam (mean difference [MD]: 0.78, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.83, 2.38; p = 0.33). The stress induced by fundoscopy (MD: 4.98, 95% CI: 3.58, 6.37; p < 0.001) and examination overall (MD: 2.32, 95% CI: 0.96, 3.67; p = 0.001) were higher in the Sp than in the SpF exam, and so was the crying score during fundoscopy (MD: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.56; p < 0.001). Adverse events in the two groups were similar (p = 0.13). Fundoscopy was adequate in identifying the absence of treatment-requiring ROP in all cases, and lasted longer in the Sp than in the SpF exam (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that the use of speculum and indentation should be reserved for the few cases where fundus visualization is insufficient for excluding the presence of severe ROP.

Assessment and management of retinopathy of prematurity in the era of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)

The incidence of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) continues to rise due to the improved survival of very low birth weight infants in developed countries. This epidemic is also fueled by increased survival of preterm babies with variable use of oxygen and a lack of ROP awareness and screening services in resource-limited regions. Improvements in technology and a basic understanding of the disease pathophysiology have changed the way we screen and manage ROP, educate providers and patients, and improve ROP awareness. Advancements in imaging techniques, expansion of telemedicine services, and the potential for artificial intelligence-assisted ROP screening programs have created opportunities to improve ROP care in areas with a shortage of ophthalmologists trained in ROP. To address the gap in provider knowledge regarding ROP, the Global Education Network for Retinopathy of Prematurity (GEN-ROP) created a web-based tele-education training module that can be used to educate all providers involved in ROP, including non-physician ROP screeners. Over the past 50 years, the treatment of severe ROP has evolved from limited treatment modalities to cryotherapy and laser photocoagulation. More recently, there has been growing evidence to support the use of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents for the treatment of severe ROP. However, VEGF is known to be important in organogenesis and microvascular maintenance, and given that intravitreal anti-VEGF treatment can result in systemic VEGF suppression over a period of at least 1-12 weeks, there are concerns regarding adverse effects and long-term ocular and systemic developmental consequences of anti-VEGF therapy. Future research in ophthalmology to address the growing burden of ROP should focus on cost-effective fundus imaging devices, implementation of artificial intelligence platforms, updated treatment algorithms with optimal use of anti-VEGF and careful investigation of its long-term effects, and surgical options in advanced ROP. Addressing these unmet needs will aid the global effort against the ROP epidemic and optimize our understanding and treatment of this blinding disease.

Screening for Retinopathy of Prematurity Through Utilization a Pediatric Retinal Camera at Jim Pattison Children's Hospital: A Vision for Improved Care

Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP) is a vascular proliferative disorder of preterm infants, with increased disease severity and incidence occurring with lower gestational age and birth weight. An alternate approach to ROP screening with wide-field digital retinal imaging helps with the early detection of ROP, especially during the pandemic.

Analysis of the parental satisfaction for retinopathy of prematurity screening using binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy versus wide field retinal imaging

Purpose:

Analysis of the parental satisfaction for retinopathy of prematurity screening using binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy versus wide field retinal imaging.

Methods:

This was an observational, questionnaire survey-based study. The study cohort comprised of parents/legal guardians of consecutive Asian Indian premature infants enrolled for retinopathy of prematurity screening (for infants less than 2000 gms and/or 34-weeks gestational age) using binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy (BIO) with scleral depression and b) wide field retinal imaging using the 3Nethra Neo Camera (Forus Health, India). We evaluated the retina for the presence or absence of stages of ROP and plus disease. The survey analysis used closed-ended (multiple-choice) and open-ended questions for assessing 1) parents’ experience/preference among the two screening modalities namely, BIO and wide field imaging used in the study, 2) knowledge prior to ROP screening, 3) knowledge gained post ROP screening, in the outpatient ophthalmologic care unit in our hospital.

Results:

Parents/legal guardians of 90 infants were included in the study. Among the 90 parents who filled in the questionnaire, 62.3% were referred by their pediatrician, 23.3% came for self check-up and 14.4% incidentally came to the hospital for complaints like ocular discharge and were screened. 93.3% parents were satisfied with either ROP screening modality in our study, with 54.4% stated a preference for retinal imaging. In the study 20% of the parents felt that retinal imaging was painful for the infant and 31.1% felt that BIO was painful for the infant.

Conclusion:

Wide field imaging is increasingly becoming an effective tool and screening tool in ROP screening and helps in better understanding of the disease amongst parents.

Reducing discomfort of eye drops prior to retinal examination in the neonatal intensive care unit

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effectiveness in reducing pain by giving oral sucrose and non-pharmacological comfort measures prior to topical administration of mydriatic eye drops on premature infants undergoing retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) screening eye exams in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective quality improvement study was conducted in the NICU where infants were given oral sucrose prior to administration of mydriatic eye drops while a second person performed facilitated tucking and containment. Premature Infant Pain Profile (PIPP) scores were recorded during eye drop administration and compared to a group that did not receive any comfort measures.

RESULT

Sixty-eight infants were enrolled. Mean PIPP scores increased an average of 1.5 (SD = 1.5) during administration of mydriatic drops without comfort measures compared to 0.6 (SD = 0.8) when comfort measures were used. This difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Oral sucrose and simple comfort measures can be effective in reducing pain associated with mydriatic eye drops.

Validation of the postnatal growth and retinopathy of prematurity screening criteria

The objective of this study was to validate the generalizability of the Postnatal Growth and Retinopathy of Prematurity Study screening criteria in a new cohort of infants at risk for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). This retrospective validation study conducted at a single academic medical center included 484 infants at risk for ROP born between January 14, 2014, and December 21, 2019. The primary outcomes evaluated were sensitivity for both type 1 and type 2 ROP, as defined by the Early Treatment of Retinopathy of Prematurity Study, as well as the reduction in total number of infants requiring ROP examinations. Secondary outcomes included the total number of ROP examinations avoided and the potential cost reduction of eliminating these examinations. In a cohort of 484 infants at risk for ROP, the criteria identified 40 of 40 (100%, 95% confidence interval 91.19%-100%) type 1 ROP cases and 27 of 27 (100%, 95% confidence interval 87.23%-100%) type 2 ROP cases while reducing the total number of infants screened by 35.7%. The Postnatal Growth and Retinopathy of Prematurity Study criteria were found in this study to be generalizable to a cohort of infants at a single teaching institution in central Texas. If applied during the studied interval, these criteria could have significantly reduced the number of infants undergoing ROP examinations and maintained excellent sensitivity for type 1 ROP.

Pain assessment during eye examination for retinopathy of prematurity screening: Skin conductance versus PIPP-R

AIM

To assess changes in skin conductance during retinopathy of prematurity screening and to study the correlation between the skin conductance and a validated pain scale.

METHODS

Prospective observational study. Fifty-three eye examinations were performed in 32 preterm infant candidates for retinopathy of prematurity screening. Outcome measures were changes in Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised (PIPP-R) scale and number of skin conductance fluctuations.

RESULTS

There was a significant increase from baseline in the number of skin conductance fluctuations and PIPP-R during the procedure. The maximum value of number of skin conductance fluctuations was 0.64 ± 0.44 peaks/sec, and the maximum value of PIPP-R was 10.8 ± 3.3. A correlation between the skin conductance and PIPP-R was not found at any time during the eye examination. Repeated measures correlation analyses showed only a moderate positive correlation between PIPP-R and number of skin conductance fluctuation values.

CONCLUSION

There were significant changes in both PIPP-R and number of skin conductance fluctuations during retinopathy of prematurity screening, reaffirming that this procedure is painful and stressful. The number of skin conductance fluctuations and PIPP-R are not significantly correlated, which likely reflects that these parameters evaluate different but complementary aspects of neonatal pain responses.

Prevention of Pain During Screening for Retinopathy of Prematurity: A Randomized Control Trial Comparing Breast Milk, 10% Dextrose and Sterile Water

OBJECTIVES

To compare the efficacy of orally administered 10% dextrose, breast milk and sterile water on pain prevention during screening examination for Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in preterm neonates as measured by Premature infant pain profile (PIPP).

METHODS

A three-limbed double-blinded randomized control trial was conducted in a Level 3 neonatal intensive care unit. Forty five preterm neonates undergoing ROP screening were included. Eligible babies were randomly assigned to one of the three groups that orally received either expressed breast milk (n = 14), 10% dextrose solution (n = 14) or sterile water (n = 17), one minute before eye examination. The outcome measure was PIPP score.

RESULTS

All 3 groups were similar in baseline characteristics. The mean PIPP scores were comparable (p = 0.18) in the three groups (11.8 ± 2.8 vs. 9.8 ± 3.3 vs. 10.2 ± 2.9). The behavioral and physiological variables were also similar across all three groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Expressed breast milk, 10% dextrose or sterile water administered orally before ROP screening in preterm neonates have similar analgesic effects and do not significantly alleviate pain during the procedure.

Low Body Weight Predicted Bradycardia and Desaturation in Retinopathy of Prematurity Surgeries: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Background: As a leading cause of childhood blindness, the epidemic of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in China is characterized by advanced stage of ROP in more mature infants than those in the West. More advanced stage of disease necessitates more complicated surgical procedures and consequently exposure to general anesthesia. These ex-prematurely born infants are at risk of developing desaturation especially after surgery under general anesthesia. Physical status, anesthetic management and surgical profile are three main facets of perioperative setting and need to be investigated to identify useful predictors for perioperative adverse events in this population of fragile infants. Methods: In this retrospective cohort study, we enrolled all infants undergoing ROP surgeries at Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China from November 1, 2016 to October 31, 2017. Physical status, anesthesia and surgical management were analyzed by exploratory factor analysis and component matrix to explore risk factors for adverse events. Results: During the 12 months, 267 cases were included, among whom 61 infants underwent two surgeries required by their ophthalmological conditions. The median postconceptual age at the time of surgery was 46 (40, 53) weeks, and median body weight was 4.0 (3.0, 6.5) kg. None of the infants was dependent on caffeine, oxygen or ventilator before surgery. Bradycardia (29/267, 10.9%) and postoperative desaturation (34/267, 13.4%) were identified as major cardiac and respiratory adverse events. Preoperative atropine, intubation and bigger body weight would prevent patients suffering from bradycardia. Infants with a body weight less than 3.15 kg had a significantly higher chance of desaturation and neonatal intensive care unit admission after ROP surgeries than those who weighed more than 3.15 kg (27.8 vs. 5.1%, OR 5.46 (95% CI 2.66-11.21), P = 0.000). Conclusion: This study found that preoperative atropine and intubation would prevent bradycardia and low body weight was a predictor for both bradycardia and postoperative desaturation in preterm infants undergoing ROP surgeries.

Pain Management with ROP Position in Turkish Preterm Infants During Eye Examinations: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of infant positioning on pain, heart rate, oxygen saturation and crying time during examination.

DESIGN & METHODS

The randomized controlled experimental study was carried out on 70 preterm infants. ROP position + pacifier was used in the experimental group (n = 35) while only the pacifier was used in the control group. Heart rates, oxygen saturation, crying duration and pain score (Premature Infant Pain Profile-PIPP) were evaluated before, during and after the screening.

RESULTS

The preterm infants in the experimental group recorded lower pain scores at the beginning of the screening (p = 0.01), at the end of the screening (p = 0.01) and after screening (p = 0.01) than those in the control group. The heart rate was higher in the control group during screening (p = 0.010) and after screening (p = 0.008) than in the preterm infants in the experimental group. Oxygen saturation was not significantly different between the groups before, during or after screening. Crying duration was lower in the experimental group than in the control group (p = 0.010).

CONCLUSIONS

Positioning of the infant to support behavioral organization was found to be effective in reducing pain and shortening crying time during eye examination, and had favorable effects on physiological variables with ROP position during eye examinations.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

ROP position is a practical and effective non-pharmacological method during eye examinations by neonatal nurses.

Risk of development of treated retinopathy of prematurity in very low birth weight infants

OBJECTIVE

Quantify the risk of treatment for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) among infants meeting current U.S. screening guidelines.

STUDY DESIGN

Among infants ≤1500 g birth weight or ≤30 weeks gestation screened for ROP from 2006-2015, we developed a risk prediction model to identify infants treated for ROP. We applied our model to a separate infant cohort discharged in 2016.

RESULT

Seventy-five thousand eight hundred and twenty one infants met inclusion criteria; 2306 (3%) were treated for ROP. Infants with several risk factor combinations (no ventilator support or oxygen on postnatal day 28, no history of necrotizing enterocolitis, and no intraventricular hemorrhage) were at low risk of ROP. Applied to 6127 infants discharged in 2016, our model had 97.9% sensitivity, 63.3% specificity, positive predictive value of 4.0%, and negative predictive value of 99.9%.

CONCLUSION

Large numbers of infants at low risk of developing ROP are required to undergo screening. Refining current ROP guidelines may reduce unnecessary examinations.

Refining evidence-based retinopathy of prematurity screening guidelines: The SCREENROP study

Purpose

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a potentially blinding condition affecting premature infants for which less than 10% of babies undergoing screening require treatment. This study assessed and validated predictors of developing clinically significant ROP (type 2 or worse) and ROP requiring treatment.

Design

Nationwide retrospective cohort study.

Methods

This study included infants born between January 2014 and June 2016, admitted to level 3 neonatal intensive care units across Canada who underwent ROP screening. Data were derived from the Canadian Neonatal Network database. Predefined ≥ 1% risk for clinically significant retinopathy or prematurity and ROP requiring treatment was set as threshold for screening. Thirty-two potential predictors were analyzed, to identify and validate the most important ones for predicting clinically significant ROP. The predictors were determined on a derivation cohort and tested on a validation cohort. Multivariable logistic regression modeling was used for analysis.

Results

Using a sample of 4,888 babies and analyzing 32 potential predictors, capturing babies with ≥1% risk of developing clinically significant ROP equated to screening babies with birth weight (BW) <1,300 g or gestational age (GA) <30 weeks while capturing babies with ≥1% risk of requiring ROP treatment equated to screening babies with BW <1,200 g or GA <29 weeks.

Conclusions

The Canadian ROP screening criteria can be modified to screen babies with BW <1,200 g or GA <30 weeks. Using these criteria, babies requiring treatment would be identified while reducing the number of babies screened unnecessarily.

Skin-to-skin contact during eye examination did not reduce pain compared to standard care with parental support in preterm infants

AIM

We compared the pain relieving effect of skin-to-skin contact versus standard care in the incubator during screening for retinopathy of prematurity.

METHODS

This randomised crossover study included 35 preterm infants of less than 32 weeks of gestational age admitted to St Olavs University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway, between January 2014 and June 2016. Randomisation was for skin-to-skin with one of the parents or standard care with supportive positioning by parents for the first of two consecutive eye examinations. The pain score was measured twice using the Premature Infant Pain Profile (PIPP) during and after the eye examination. The infants' movement activity was video recorded after the examination.

RESULTS

There was no difference in mean pain scores with skin-to-skin contact versus standard care during (10.2 vs. 10.3, p = 0.91) or after (7.0 vs. 6.8, p = 0.76) the procedure. Independent of the randomisation group, PIPP scores were lower than previous comparable studies have found. Bouts of movement activity were also the same whether the examination was conducted in skin-to-skin position or in the incubator (p = 0.91).

CONCLUSION

Skin-to-skin contact during the eye examination did not provide additional pain relief compared to standard care where the parents were already a part of the multidimensional approach.

Effect of breast milk and sucrose on pain and perfusion index during examination for retinopathy of prematurity

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of breast milk and sucrose on pain scores and perfusion index (PI) and to evaluate the alteration in pain and PI during retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) examination.

METHODS

This prospective randomized controlled study was conducted with preterm infants who were born in our hospital, hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care unit and whose gestational week was <32 weeks and birth weight was <1500 g. The preterm infants who would undergo ROP examination were allocated to three groups according to simple randomization method as follows: group 1: only local anesthetic eye drops, proparacaine HCl ophthalmic solution 0.5%, group 2: proparacaine HCl ophthalmic solution 0.5% plus breast milk, and group 3: proparacaine HCl ophthalmic solution 0.5% plus sucrose 24%. Postductal PI, transcutaneous oxygen saturation and heart rate (HR) values were measured before the eye examination (0), at the 30th, 60th, and 90th seconds (s) of the eye examination and 30 s after lasting of the examination in all infants. Pain was evaluated using Neonatal Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) during the examination.

RESULTS

Fifty-one preterm neonates were prospectively enrolled into the study. The HR was higher during and after the examination in all infants according to before the examination (p < .001). Transcutaneous oxygen saturation values significantly decreased during the examination in breast milk and sucrose groups (p = .001 and <.001, respectively). While PI was found to be lower at the 60th s compared to the 30th s of the examination in the proparacaine HCl group, no difference was found between the values before and after the examination. Perfusion index was found to significantly decrease during and after the examination compared to the values before the examination in the breast milk group. Perfusion index values were determined to significantly decrease at the 30th and 60th s of the examination in the sucrose group. The NIPS scores during the examination were determined to be higher compared to the NIPS scores before the examination in all groups (p< .001). In the intergroup comparisons, the NIPS scores were found to be higher in the sucrose group compared to the proparacaine HCl group at the 60th s of the examination and higher than that in the breast milk group at the 90th s of the examination (p = .02 and p = .01, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study indicates that alterations may be seen in PI during the ROP examination; in other words, peripheral tissue perfusion could be affected. We consider that eye examination is a very painful procedure, and administering breast milk, sucrose or local anesthetic is not sufficient for reducing pain.

Differential effects of the retinopathy of prematurity exam on the physiology of premature infants

OBJECTIVE

To compare the differential effects of the retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) examination on the physiology of premature infants with and without oxygen support.

STUDY DESIGN

We collected data from 42 premature infants (room air = 19, oxygen support = 23) and compared physiological metrics including heart rate (HR), systemic peripheral saturation (SpO₂), mesenteric tissue oxygen saturation (StO₂) and clinical events (oxygen desaturation episodes, bradycardia events, and gastric residuals).

RESULTS

We found significant differences between groups in HR during and briefly after the exam, and in mesenteric StO_2, during eye drop administration, eye exam, and up to 8 min after the exam. SpO₂ was significantly different between the groups at all time points. Gastric residuals were higher after the exam in infants on oxygen support, compared to baseline.

CONCLUSION

Premature infants on oxygen support may be at a higher risk of adverse physiologic effects in response to the ROP exam.

Literature review informs clinical guidelines for pain management during screening and laser photocoagulation for retinopathy of prematurity

AIM

The aim of this study was to carry out a literature review and develop clinical guidelines for pain prevention and control during screening and laser photocoagulation for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs).

METHODS

The Italian Society of Neonatology assessed papers published between 1986 and June 2017 and used the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach, to develop new guidelines on pain and ROP.

RESULTS

The Society's pain experts assessed the full texts of 47 papers, including randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials and case-control studies on nonpharmacological and pharmacological measures used in NICUs during the screening and laser photocoagulation of neonates for ROP. The literature suggested methods for reducing the stress and pain associated with ROP screening procedures. The panel concluded that the literature showed that it was feasible to provide laser photocoagulation for ROP in spontaneously breathing patients with adequate analgesia.

CONCLUSION

This literature review on managing pain in infants with ROP in NICUs led to the development of national guidelines, which will help physicians and nurses to reduce the stress and pain experienced by premature newborn infants during unavoidable screening and treatment for ROP.

Analgesic efficacy and safety of morphine in the Procedural Pain in Premature Infants (Poppi) study: randomised placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Infant pain has immediate and long-term effects but is undertreated because of a paucity of evidence-based analgesics. Although morphine is often used to sedate ventilated infants, its analgesic efficacy is unclear. We aimed to establish whether oral morphine could provide effective and safe analgesia in non-ventilated premature infants for acute procedural pain.

METHODS

In this single-centre masked trial, 31 infants at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK, were randomly allocated using a web-based facility with a minimisation algorithm to either 100 μg/kg oral morphine sulphate or placebo 1 h before a clinically required heel lance and retinopathy of prematurity screening examination, on the same occasion. Eligible infants were born prematurely at less than 32 weeks' gestation or with a birthweight lower than 1501 g and had a gestational age of 34-42 weeks at the time of the study. The co-primary outcome measures were the Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised (PIPP-R) score after retinopathy of prematurity screening and the magnitude of noxious-evoked brain activity after heel lancing. Secondary outcome measures assessed physiological stability and safety. This trial is registered with the European Clinical Trials Database (number 2014-003237-25).

FINDINGS

Between Oct 30, 2016, and Nov 17, 2017, 15 infants were randomly allocated to morphine and 16 to placebo; one infant assigned placebo was withdrawn from the study before monitoring began. The predefined stopping boundary was crossed, and trial recruitment stopped because of profound respiratory adverse effects of morphine without suggestion of analgesic efficacy. None of the co-primary outcome measures differed significantly between groups. PIPP-R score after retinopathy of prematurity screening was mean 11·1 (SD 3·2) with morphine and 10·5 (3·4) with placebo (mean difference 0·5, 95% CI -2·0 to 3·0; p=0·66). Noxious-evoked brain activity after heel lancing was median 0·99 (IQR 0·40-1·56) with morphine and 0·75 (0·33-1·22) with placebo (median difference 0·25, 95% CI -0·16 to 0·80; p=0·25).

INTERPRETATION

Administration of oral morphine (100 μg/kg) to non-ventilated premature infants has the potential for harm without analgesic efficacy. We do not recommend oral morphine for retinopathy of prematurity screening and strongly advise caution if considering its use for other acute painful procedures in non-ventilated premature infants.

FUNDING

Wellcome Trust and National Institute for Health Research.

The ROPScore as a Screening Algorithm for Predicting Retinopathy of Prematurity in a Brazilian Population

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the accuracy of the ROPScore algorithm as a predictor of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP).

METHODS

A prospective cohort of 220 preterm infants with a birth weight ≤1500 g and/or gestational age ≤32 weeks was included. The ROPScore was determined in the sixth week of life in 181 infants who then survived until a corrected gestational age of 45 weeks. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive (PPV) and negative predictive values (NPV) of the algorithm were analyzed.

RESULTS

ROP was found in 17.6% of the preterm infants. The sensitivity of this test for any stage of ROP was 87.5%, while that for severe ROP was 95.4% (21/22 cases). The PPV and NPV were 59.6% and 97%, respectively, for any stage of ROP and 44.7% and 99.25%, respectively, for severe ROP. The ROPScore could therefore hypothetically reduce the number of ophthalmologic examinations required to detect ROP by 71.8%.

CONCLUSION

The ROPScore is a useful screening tool for ROP and may optimize examinations and especially the identification of severe ROP.

Pain-Relieving Interventions for Retinopathy of Prematurity: A Meta-analysis

CONTEXT

Retinopathy of prematurity eye examinations conducted in the neonatal intensive care.

OBJECTIVE

To combine randomized trials of pain-relieving interventions for retinopathy of prematurity examinations using network meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

Systematic review and network meta-analysis of Medline, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, and the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform. All databases were searched from inception to February 2017.

STUDY SELECTION

Abstract and title screen and full-text screening were conducted independently by 2 reviewers.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data were extracted by 2 reviewers and pooled with random effect models if the number of trials within a comparison was sufficient. The primary outcome was pain during the examination period; secondary outcomes were pain after the examination, physiologic response, and adverse events.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies (N = 1487) were included. Topical anesthetic (TA) combined with sweet taste and an adjunct intervention (eg, nonnutritive sucking) had the highest probability of being the optimal treatment (mean difference [95% credible interval] versus TA alone = -3.67 [-5.86 to -1.47]; surface under the cumulative ranking curve = 0.86). Secondary outcomes were sparsely reported (2-4 studies, N = 90-248) but supported sweet-tasting solutions with or without adjunct interventions as optimal.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations included moderate heterogeneity in pain assessment reactivity phase and severe heterogeneity in the regulation phase.

CONCLUSIONS

Multisensory interventions including sweet taste is likely the optimal treatment for reducing pain resulting from eye examinations in preterm infants. No interventions were effective in absolute terms.

Retinopathy of prematurity practices: a national survey of Canadian Neonatal Intensive Care Units

OBJECTIVE

To examine current level three Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) practices related to ROP screening and treatment.

STUDY DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey was sent to 29 level three NICU's across Canada to survey current screening inclusion criteria, treatment options, supportive care and post-screening events for ROP.

RESULT

22/29 (76%) level three NICU's responded. Ten different ROP screening inclusion criteria were found to be in use with significant variation in gestational age and birth weight criteria. Many other national variations also exist regarding the supportive and procedural protocols surrounding ROP screening as well as mode of treatment for ROP.

CONCLUSION

Despite national guidelines, significant variation in ROP screening inclusion criteria practices exist among neonatal units in Canada. Therefore, there is an urgent need for better evidence-based screening guidelines as well as a need to standardize supportive measures surrounding ROP screening and treatment.

Can a Risk Factor Based Approach Safely Reduce Screening for Retinopathy of Prematurity?

Objective. Current American retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) screening guidelines is imprecise for infants ≥ 30 weeks with birth weights between 1500 and 2000 g. Our objective was to evaluate a risk factor based approach for screening premature infants at low risk for severe ROP. Study Design. We performed a 13-year review from Intermountain Health Care (IHC) data. All neonates born at ≤32 weeks were reviewed to determine ROP screening and/or development of severe ROP. Severe ROP was defined by stage ≥ 3 or need for laser therapy. Regression analysis was used to identify significant risk factors for severe ROP. Results. We identified 4607 neonates ≤ 32 weeks gestation. Following exclusion for death, with no retinal exam or incomplete data, 2791 (61%) were included in the study. Overall, severe ROP occurred in 260 (9.3%), but only 11/1601 ≥ 29 weeks (0.7%). All infants with severe ROP ≥ 29 weeks had at least 2 identified ROP risk factors. Implementation of this risk based screening strategy to the IHC population over the timeline of this study would have eliminated screening in 21% (343/1601) of the screened population. Conclusions. Limiting ROP screening for infants ≥ 29 and ≤ 32 weeks to only those with clinical risk factors could significantly reduce screening exams while identifying all infants with severe ROP.

A blinded randomised placebo-controlled trial investigating the efficacy of morphine analgesia for procedural pain in infants: Trial protocol

Infant pain has both immediate and long-term negative consequences, yet in clinical practice it is often undertreated. To date, few pain-relieving drugs have been tested in infants. Morphine is a potent analgesic that provides effective pain relief in adults, but there is inconclusive evidence for its effectiveness in infants. The purpose of this study is to establish whether oral morphine provides effective analgesia for procedural pain in infants. A blinded, placebo-controlled, parallel-group randomized, phase II, clinical trial will be undertaken to determine whether morphine sulphate administered orally prior to clinically-required retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) screening and heel lancing provides effective analgesia. 
156 infants between 34 and 42 weeks' gestational age who require a clinical heel lance and ROP screening on the same test occasion will be included in the trial. Infants will be randomised to receive either a single dose of morphine sulphate (100 μg/kg) or placebo. Each infant will be monitored for 48 hours and safety data will be collected during the 24 hours following drug administration. The primary outcome will be the Premature Infant Pain Profile-revised (PIPP-R) score 30 seconds after ROP screening. The co-primary outcome will be the magnitude of nociceptive-specific brain activity evoked by a clinically-required heel lance. Infant clinical stability will be assessed by comparing the number of episodes of bradycardia, tachycardia, desaturation and apnoea, and changes in respiratory support requirements in the 24-hour periods before and after the clinical intervention. In addition, drug safety will be assessed by considering the occurrence of apnoeic and hypotensive episodes requiring intervention in the 24-hour period following drug administration. This study has been published as an Accepted Protocol Summary by The Lancet.

A blinded randomised placebo-controlled trial investigating the efficacy of morphine analgesia for procedural pain in infants: Trial protocol

Infant pain has both immediate and long-term negative consequences, yet in clinical practice it is often undertreated. To date, few pain-relieving drugs have been tested in infants. Morphine is a potent analgesic that provides effective pain relief in adults, but there is inconclusive evidence for its effectiveness in infants. The purpose of this study is to establish whether oral morphine provides effective analgesia for procedural pain in infants. A blinded, placebo-controlled, parallel-group randomized, phase II, clinical trial will be undertaken to determine whether morphine sulphate administered orally prior to clinically-required retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) screening and heel lancing provides effective analgesia. 
156 infants between 34 and 42 weeks' gestational age who require a clinical heel lance and ROP screening on the same test occasion will be included in the trial. Infants will be randomised to receive either a single dose of morphine sulphate (100 μg/kg) or placebo. Each infant will be monitored for 48 hours and safety data will be collected during the 24 hours following drug administration. The primary outcome will be the Premature Infant Pain Profile-revised (PIPP-R) score 30 seconds after ROP screening. The co-primary outcome will be the magnitude of nociceptive-specific brain activity evoked by a clinically-required heel lance. Infant clinical stability will be assessed by comparing the number of episodes of bradycardia, tachycardia, desaturation and apnoea, and changes in respiratory support requirements in the 24-hour periods before and after the clinical intervention. In addition, drug safety will be assessed by considering the occurrence of apnoeic and hypotensive episodes requiring intervention in the 24-hour period following drug administration. This study has been published as an Accepted Protocol Summary by The Lancet.

Systemic changes and adverse effects induced by retinopathy of prematurity screening

AIM

To estimate the potential systemic events during and after retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) screening.

METHODS

A prospective and descriptive designed study was conducted to detect the physiologic and pathological changes 24h before, during, and 72h after ROP screening. Control blood pressure (BP), saturation, pulse rate, and body temperature were routinely taken at various time internals before and after screening. Adverse effects pertain to cardiovascular system, respiratory system, gastric system, urinary system and nervous system were retrospect 0-72h after ROP screening at a 24-hour interval.

RESULTS

Totally 1254 prematurity babies receiving ROP screening during Jan. 1(st) 2013 to Dec. 31(th) 2013 were enrolled in our survey. Compared to control vital sign data taken before the examination, there was a fluctuation in the diastolic BP with the increased 3.03 mm Hg (P=0.04) after 3 doses of mydriatic drops. Immediately after the examination, there was a further 12.64 mm Hg (P<0.01) increase in systolic BP and a 7.24 mm Hg (P<0.01) in diastolic BP. The mean pulse rate during examination was 22.4 bpm (P<0.01) higher than the 133.3±9.0 bpm control level. The oxygen saturation shared an average drop of 5% (P<0.01) during screening. In prematurity with postconceptional age less than 31wk, the incidence of apnea (23.5%), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) (8.7%), gastric residual (25.4%) and upper digestive tract hemorrhage (6.4%) also demonstrated a significant rise (P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

In our study sample, ROP screening was associated with NEC, gastric residual and upper digestive tract hemorrhage. These gastrointestinal side effects, along with breath activity pattern change and vital signs indicators fluctuation, may be results of additional stress responses.

Retinopathy of prematurity: An update on screening and management

Retinopathy of prematurity is a proliferative disorder of the developing retinal blood vessels in preterm infants. The present practice point reviews new information regarding screening and management for retinopathy of prematurity, including the role of risk factors in screening, optimal scheduling for screening examinations, pain management, digital retinal photography and antivascular endothelial growth factor therapy.

Preterm-associated visual impairment and estimates of retinopathy of prematurity at regional and global levels for 2010

BACKGROUND

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a leading cause of potentially avoidable childhood blindness worldwide. We estimated ROP burden at the global and regional levels to inform screening and treatment programs, research, and data priorities.

METHODS

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were undertaken to estimate the risk of ROP and subsequent visual impairment for surviving preterm babies by level of neonatal care, access to ROP screening, and treatment. A compartmental model was used to estimate ROP cases and numbers of visually impaired survivors.

RESULTS

In 2010, an estimated 184,700 (uncertainty range: 169,600-214,500) preterm babies developed any stage of ROP, 20,000 (15,500-27,200) of whom became blind or severely visually impaired from ROP, and a further 12,300 (8,300-18,400) developed mild/moderate visual impairment. Sixty-five percent of those visually impaired from ROP were born in middle-income regions; 6.2% (4.3-8.9%) of all ROP visually impaired infants were born at >32-wk gestation. Visual impairment from other conditions associated with preterm birth will affect larger numbers of survivors.

CONCLUSION

Improved care, including oxygen delivery and monitoring, for preterm babies in all facility settings would reduce the number of babies affected with ROP. Improved data tracking and coverage of locally adapted screening/treatment programs are urgently required.

The pain response to mydriatic eyedrops in preterm infants

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate physiological and behavioral pain responses of premature infants following instillation of mydriatic eyedrops for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) examinations. While burning and stinging occurs in older patients, the infant pain response is not well characterized.

STUDY DESIGN

Vital sign and video monitor recorded infant responses before, during and after mydriatic (tropicamide 1%, phenylephrine 2.5%) administration upon first ROP exam. Two masked observers graded Premature Infant Pain Profile (PIPP) scores immediately before and following eyedrop administration. Scores <7 indicate no/minimal pain, 7 to 12 slight/moderate, >12 severe.

RESULT

Twenty infants had mean premydriatic PIPP score 3.6 (s.d. 1.6), mean postmydriatic score 5.7 (s.d. 3.4), mean change 2.1 (s.d. 3.4) (P=0.01). One (5%) had premydriatic PIPP score ≥7, seven (35%) post scores ≥7 (P=0.07) with one >12.

CONCLUSION

Mydriatic drops cause a clinically significant pain response in one-third of infants. Non-pharmacological supportive measures are recommended for all infants until predictive factors are defined.

Oral glucose for pain relief during examination for retinopathy of prematurity: a masked randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

Ophthalmologic examination for retinopathy of prematurity is a painful procedure. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions have been proposed to reduce pain during eye examinations. This study aims to evaluate the analgesic effect of 25% glucose using a validated pain scale during the first eye examination for retinopathy of prematurity in preterm infants with birth weight <1,500 g and/or gestational age <32 weeks.

METHODS

A masked, randomized clinical trial for one dose of 1 ml of oral 25% glucose solution 2 minutes before the first ophthalmologic examination for retinopathy of prematurity was conducted between March 2008 and April 2010. The results were compared to those of a control group that did not receive oral glucose solution. Pain was evaluated using a Neonatal Infant Pain Scale immediately before and immediately after the ophthalmologic examination in both groups. Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT00648687

RESULTS

One hundred and twenty-four patients who were examined for the first time for retinopathy of prematurity were included. Seventy were included in the intervention group and 54 in the control group. The number of patients with pain immediately before the procedure was similar in both groups. The number of patients with pain after ophthalmologic examination was 15.7% in the intervention group and 68.5% in the control group (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

One ml of oral 25% glucose solution given 2 minutes before an ophthalmologic examination for retinopathy of prematurity was an effective measure for pain relief.

Sucrose for procedural pain management in infants

The use of oral sucrose has been the most extensively studied pain intervention in newborn care to date. More than 150 published studies relating to sweet-taste-induced calming and analgesia in human infants have been identified, of which 100 (65%) include sucrose. With only a few exceptions, sucrose, glucose, or other sweet solutions reduced pain responses during commonly performed painful procedures in diverse populations of infants up to 12 months of age. Sucrose has been widely recommended for routine use during painful procedures in newborn and young infants, yet these recommendations have not been translated into consistent use in clinical practice. One reason may be related to important knowledge and research gaps concerning analgesic effects of sucrose. Notably, the mechanism of sweet-taste-induced analgesia is still not precisely understood, which has implications for using research evidence in practice. The aim of this article is to review what is known about the mechanisms of sucrose-induced analgesia; highlight existing evidence, knowledge gaps, and current controversies; and provide directions for future research and practice.

Pain and stress assessment after retinopathy of prematurity screening examination: indirect ophthalmoscopy versus digital retinal imaging

BACKGROUND

Increasingly, neonatal clinics seek to minimize painful experiences and stress for premature infants. Fundoscopy performed with a binocular indirect ophthalmoscope is the reference examination technique for screening of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), and it is associated with pain and stress. Wide-field digital retinal imaging is a recent technique that should be evaluated for minimizing infant pain and stress.

METHODS

The purpose of the study was to assess and compare the impact of using a binocular indirect ophthalmoscope (BIO), or wide-field digital retinal imaging (WFDRI) on pain and stress in infants undergoing ROP screening examination. This was a comparative evaluation study of two screening procedures. Ophthalmologic examinations (N = 70) were performed on 24 infants with both BIO and WFDRI. Pain assessments were performed with two specific neonatal scales (Crying, requires oxygen, increased vital signs, expression and sleeplessness, CRIES and, Premature infant pain profile, PIPP) just prior to the examination, and 30 seconds, 1 hour, and 24 hours later after ending the examination.

RESULTS

Changes over time were significantly different between BIO and WFDRI with both scales (PIPP score, p = .007, and CRIES score, p = .001). Median PIPP score (interquartile interval) at baseline was 4 (3-5). At 30 seconds the score was 8 (6-9) for BIO and 6 (5-7) for WFDRI, respectively. The increase in PIPP score between baseline and 30 seconds was significantly lower with WFDRI (p = .006). The median increase in CRIES score from baseline to 30 seconds was 1 point lower for WFDRI than for BIO (p < .001). No significant difference in response remained at 1 hour or 24 hour assessments.

CONCLUSIONS

A transient short-term pain and stress response occurs with both BIO and WFDRI. Infants examined for screening of ROP with digital retinal imaging present less pain and stress at 30 seconds following completion of the exam when compared with binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy.

Salivary cortisol measurement in developmental research: where do we go from here?

Salivary cortisol has been measured extensively in developmental research over the last three decades. The purpose of this article is to summarize the contributions to and limitations of salivary cortisol measurement in developmental research and propose future directions for research that includes salivary cortisol measurement. The properties of cortisol, the history of its burgeoning popularity, and the utility and limitations of (a) cortisol as a biological indicator, (b) saliva as a source of cortisol, and (c) various saliva collection methodologies are described. The current state of understanding about what is and is not reliably predictable from cortisol is summarized and the value of salivary cortisol measurement in developmental research is discussed, addressing whether methodology could be driving research design. Recommendations are made for streamlining study design and reporting within developmental research.

Retinopathy of prematurity

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) occurs due to abnormal proliferation of retinal vessels. The most important risk factors which predispose to development of ROP include oxygen therapy, anemia needing blood transfusion, sepsis and apnea. Very low birth weight neonates, those born at ≤ 32 week of gestation and other preterm neonates with risk factors must be screened for ROP. As a general rule first screening should be done at 1 month of postnatal age. If screening detects ROP not needing treatment follow up should be planned according to location and stage of ROP. Better visual outcomes are observed with earlier treatment at lower threshold. Peripheral retinal ablation with diode laser under adequate analgesia and sedation is the preferred method for treatment of severe ROP. Guidelines regarding the procedure of dilatation, ophthalmic examination and treatment (if required) have been provided in the protocol. Close co-operation between the ophthalmologist and neonatologist is essential for successful management of ROP.

Anesthesia and analgesia in the NICU

Painful procedures in the neonatal intensive care unit are common, undertreated, and lead to adverse consequences. A stepwise approach to treatment should include pain recognition, assessment, and treatment, starting with nonpharmacologic and progressing to pharmacologic methods for increasing pain. The most common nonpharmacologic techniques include nonnutritive sucking with and without sucrose, kangaroo care, swaddling, and massage therapy. Drugs used to treat neonatal pain include the opiates, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, ketamine, propofol, acetaminophen, and local and topical anesthetics. The indications, advantages, and disadvantages of the commonly used analgesic drugs are discussed. Guidance and references for drugs and dosing for specific neonatal procedures are provided.

Accuracy of retinopathy of prematurity image-based diagnosis by pediatric ophthalmology fellows: implications for training

PURPOSE

To measure the accuracy of image-based retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) diagnosis by pediatric ophthalmology fellows.

METHODS

This was a comparative case series of expert versus nonexpert clinicians in image-based ROP diagnosis. An atlas of 804 retinal images was captured from 248 eyes of 67 premature infants with a wide-angle camera (RetCam-II, Clarity Medical Systems, Pleasanton, CA). Images were uploaded to a study website from which an expert pediatric retinal specialist and five pediatric ophthalmology fellows independently provided a diagnosis (no ROP, mild ROP, type 2 ROP, or treatment-requiring ROP) for each eye. Two different retinal specialists experienced in ROP examination served as additional controls. Primary outcome measures were sensitivity and specificity of image-based ROP diagnosis by fellows compared to a reference standard of image-based interpretation by the expert pediatric retinal specialist. Secondary outcome measure was intraphysician reliability.

RESULTS

For detection of mild or worse ROP, the mean (range) sensitivity among the five fellows was 0.850 (0.670-0.962) and specificity was 0.919 (0.832-0.964). For detection of type 2 or worse ROP by fellows, mean (range) sensitivity was 0.527 (0.356-0.709) and specificity was 0.938 (0.777-1.000). For detection of treatment-requiring ROP, mean (range) sensitivity was 0.515 (0.267-0.765) and specificity was 0.949 (0.805-1.00).

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric ophthalmology fellows in this study demonstrated high diagnostic specificity in image-based ROP diagnosis; however, sensitivity was lower, particularly for clinically significant disease.

Local anaesthetic eye drops for prevention of pain in preterm infants undergoing screening for retinopathy of prematurity

BACKGROUND

Screening examinations for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) are performed routinely in the neonatal intensive care unit and are a recognised cause of pain in the newborn.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of instillation of topical anaesthetic eye drops compared with placebo or no treatment on pain in infants undergoing ROP screening.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We used the standard search strategy of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group. This included a search of the Cochrane Neonatal Group register and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL, The Cochrane Library, Issue 10, 2010). We identified relevant studies by searching the following: (1) computerised bibliographic databases: MEDLINE (1966 to October 2010), EMBASE (1988 to October 2010) and Web of Science (1975 to March 2010; (2) the Oxford Database of Perinatal Trials. We searched electronically abstracts from PAS from 2000 to 2010 and handsearched abstracts from ESPR from 2000 to 2009.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised, or quasi-randomised controlled trials, or randomised cross-over trials.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used the standard methods of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified two studies for inclusion. Both studies were randomised cross-over trials performed in single centres. Both studies used the Premature Infant Pain Profile (PIPP) score as a measure of pain response. Different methods of evaluating PIPP scores are presented including the absolute PIPP score, a PIPP score > 10 or > 12 and an increase in PIPP ≥ 4 from the baseline value. There is a nonsignificant reduction in pain scores at one minute and a nonsignificant increase at five minutes post insertion of the speculum. PIPP score > 12 at one minute resulted in a statistically significant reduction in the number of patients who experienced pain (typical risk ratio (RR) 0.56, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.89; typical risk difference (RD) -0.23, 95% CI -0.39 to -0.86; number needed to treat to benefit (NNTB) 4). When pain was defined as an increase in PIPP > 4 there was a statistically significant reduction in the absolute number of patients who experienced pain at one minute (typical RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.52 to 0.94; typical RD -0.19, 95% CI -0.34 to -0.04; NNTB 5.3).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The administration of topical proparacaine 30 seconds prior to the ophthalmological evaluation was associated with a reduction in pain scores especially at the time of speculum insertion. However, despite treatment, screening remains a painful procedure and the role of nonpharmacological and pharmacological intervention including different local anaesthetic agents should be ascertained in future randomised trials.

A new risk-based screening criterion for treatment-demanding retinopathy of prematurity in Denmark

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to uncover the most effective and safe criterion to implement for retinopathy of prematurity screening in Denmark.

METHODS

This retrospective national cohort study is based on data from 3 national registers. These registers provided on infants treated for retinopathy of prematurity, infants in need of treatment but missed by the present screening program, and the candidate neonates for advanced retinopathy of prematurity development A nonlinear logistic regression model was fitted to the data, and various screening criteria were evaluated.

RESULTS

During the study period (2002-2006), 116 infants were treated for retinopathy of prematurity, no treatment-demanding retinopathy of prematurity infants were missed by the screening program, and 182 premature infants were candidates for developing treatment-demanding retinopathy of prematurity. Screening criteria combining gestational age at delivery and birth weight limits and new risk-based criteria were compared with regards to their effectiveness. The risk-based criteria were the most effective. Use of the 0.13% risk-based criterion to define the population to be screened resulted in the detection of all treated infants in the study period and 17.4% fewer infants to screen. The model predicted this criterion to result in 1 missed case of treatment-demanding retinopathy of prematurity every 11 years and 1 case of blindness every 18 years in Denmark.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening criteria based on risk estimates of developing treatment-demanding retinopathy of prematurity are the most effective for retinopathy-of-prematurity screening. The risk-based criterion of 0.13% can safely be implemented for future retinopathy-of-prematurity screening in Denmark.