Gastrointestinal studies in the green iguana: technique and reference values

The Utility of Bile Acids for the Diagnosis of Liver Disease in Exotic Animals

The synthesis of bile acids occurs during the degradation of cholesterol in hepatocytes. Thus, this analyte is expected to be a sensitive indicator of hepatocellular dysfunction or alterations in portal circulation. Bile acids can be quantified via an enzymatic reaction to a highly conserved moiety across species. The evidence for the clinical utility of bile acids for the diagnosis of liver disease is strongest in birds and ferrets with equivocal evidence in rodents, rabbits, and reptiles. Current limitations to the interpretation of bile acids in exotic animal species include a paucity of species-specific reference intervals and incomplete understanding of bile acid metabolism in nonmammalian species and the diversity of bile acids synthesized by vertebrates.

Glucose tolerance of iguanas is affected by high-sugar diets in the lab and supplemental feeding by ecotourists in the wild

There is great interspecific variation in the nutritional composition of natural diets, and the varied nutritional content is physiologically tolerated because of evolutionarily based balances between diet composition and processing ability. However, as a result of landscape change and human exposure, unnatural diets are becoming widespread among wildlife without the necessary time for evolutionary matching between the diet and its processing. We tested how a controlled, unnatural high glucose diet affects glucose tolerance using captive green iguanas, and we performed similar glucose tolerance tests on wild Northern Bahamian rock iguanas that are either frequently fed grapes by tourists or experience no such supplementation. We evaluated both short and longer-term blood glucose responses and corticosterone (CORT) concentrations as changes have been associated with altered diets. Experimental glucose supplementation in the laboratory and tourist feeding in the wild both significantly affected glucose metabolism. When iguanas received a glucose-rich diet, we found greater acute increases in blood glucose following a glucose challenge. Relative to unfed iguanas, tourist-fed iguanas had significantly lower baseline CORT, higher baseline blood glucose, and slower returns to baseline glucose levels following a glucose challenge. Therefore, unnatural consumption of high amounts of glucose alters glucose metabolism in laboratory iguanas with short-term glucose treatment and free-living iguanas exposed to long-term feeding by tourists. Based on these results and the increasing prevalence of anthropogenically altered wildlife diets, the consequences of dietary changes on glucose metabolism should be further investigated across species, as such changes in glucose metabolism have health consequences in humans (e.g. diabetes).

Gastroesophageal tube of the Iguana iguana (Iguanidae): histological description, histochemical and immunohistochemical analysis of 5-HT and SS cells

The work aims were to describe the histological and histochemical structure of the gastroesophageal tube of Iguana iguana and verify the occurrence and distribution of immunoreactive serotonin (5-HT) and somatostatin (SS) cells. Fragments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of five iguanas were which underwent standard histological and immunohistochemistry technique. Immunoreactive cells for 5-HT and SS were quantified using the STEPanizer. The oesophagus has ciliated columnar pseudostratified epithelium with staining Alcian blue (AB) + and goblet cells highly reactive to periodic acid Schiff (PAS). In the cervical oesophagus, the numerical density of 5-HT cells per unit area (QA [5-HT cells]/µm2) was 4.6x10-2 ± 2.0 and celomatic oesophagus presented QA = 4.0x10-2 ± 1.0. The epithelium of the stomach is simple columnar, PAS and AB +. The cranial and middle regions of the stomach presented (QA [5-HT cells]/µm2) = 6.18x10-2 ± 3.2 and the caudal region, QA = 0.6x10-2 ± 0.2. The SS cells were only observed in the caudal stomach, with numerical density (QA [SS cells]/µm2) = 1.4x10-2 ± 0.9 In I. iguana, variation was observed in terms of the distribution of mucus secretions and the pattern of occurrence of serotonin and somatostatin-secreting enteroendocrine cells in the TGI, which possibly will result in an interspecific adaptive response.

Anatomic-radiographic aspects and gastrointestinal transit time in boa constrictor amarali stull, 1932 (Squamata, Boidae)

ABSTRACT The goal of this study was to describe the gastrointestinal transit technique in the Boa constrictor amarali. For that purpose, we obtained simple radiographic images of seven serpents, subsequently administering a 25mL/kg dose of barium sulfate and establishing a radiographic sequence at the following times: 5 minutes; 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours, extending to 120 and 126 hours for one animal. The mean esophageal transit was 26.71±19.48 hours; the mean gastric filling time was 28.57±27.22 minutes and the emptying time was 60±12 hours; the mean filling time of the contrast medium in the small intestine was 3±2.16 hours and the emptying time was 97±15.65 hours. We also obtained the mean filling time of the large intestine, which was 40±11.31 hours. We found that the mean passage time of the contrast medium through the cranial gastrointestinal tract - until the complete elimination of barium sulfate from the small intestine -was 97±15.65 hours. In addition to determining the gastrointestinal transit time, the technique used allowed for the morphological identification of the alimentary canal.

Gross anatomy, histology and blood vessel topography of the alimentary canal of the Inland Bearded Dragon (Pogona vitticeps)

Imaging techniques have proved to be crucial for diagnosis in reptile species. The topography of the internal organs of bearded dragons has been described in recent studies as meeting the small animal practitioners´ demand for knowledge concerning their anatomy. However, the nomenclature in the respective literature is not uniform, which could lead to misunderstandings concerning the respective and/or affected parts of the alimentary canal. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide clear information on anatomy and histology of the alimentary canal of bearded dragons including supplying blood vessels. For the dissection of the alimentary canal, 11 Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) were used (five males, six females), which had been euthanised for clinical reasons other than those concerning the digestive tract or had died spontaneously. The supplying arteries were demonstrated by injecting red latex into the aorta, while the intestinal veins were filled with blue latex via the portal vein. Microscopic examination was carried out on specimens of seven additional bearded dragons using routine histologic procedures. Macroscopically, the sections of the alimentary canal from oral to aboral were distinguished into oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, colic ampulla, colic isthmus, rectum and cloaca. Differentiation of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum was only possible when considering the bile duct, the vasculature and the histology of the organ wall. Arteries supplying the oesophagus and the final straight part of the large intestine originated from the aorta in a segmental manner. Between these, three unpaired arteries arose from the aorta. Their branches supplied stomach and intestine excluding its last part. Based on the findings of the present study, a nomenclature for the different parts of the alimentary canal and the supplying blood vessels of bearded dragons is suggested which is well understandable for veterinary practitioners and is based on zoological knowledge of reptiles.

Specific anatomy and radiographic illustration of the digestive tract and transit time of two orally administered contrast media in Inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)

The aim of this study was to describe the specific gross and radiographic anatomy of the digestive tract of inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). Eleven bearded dragon cadavers of both sexes (6 females, 5 males) were dissected to examine, measure, and document the specific gross anatomy of the alimentary canal. Measurements collected from the cadavers included snout-vent length, total length of the alimentary canal, and the lengths of the individual sections of the gastrointestinal tract, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, ampulla coli, isthmus coli, rectum, and the distance from the coprodeum to the vent opening. Twenty-two healthy adult bearded dragons (13 females, 9 males) maintained under standardized husbandry conditions underwent a physical examination, blood collection, and whole-body dorsoventral and lateral survey radiographs; these animals were used to provide the radiographic images of the complete digestive tract. For the subsequent contrast passage studies, two different contrast media, barium sulfate (BaSO₄, Barilux suspension) and an iodinated ionic radiocontrast agent (Sodium meglumine amidotrizoate [SMAT], Gastrografin), were used. Water-diluted Barilux suspension (dose 9 ml/kg) was administered orally to 5 bearded dragons, while Gastrografin (dose 5ml/kg) was administered orally to 21 bearded dragons. Four animals were used for both contrast media studies, but received a break of four weeks in between. Dorsoventral and laterolateral radiographs were collected at 0 (baseline), 15, 30, and 45 minutes and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 24, 30, and 36 hours after each contrast medium was administered. Both contrast media were found to illustrate the alimentary tracts in the adult bearded dragons. Transit time was substantially faster with SMAT, and SMAT illustrated the entire gastrointestinal tract within 36 hours; BaSO₄ did not fully illustrate the gastrointestinal tract in 36 hours. These results might serve as a guideline for the interpretation of subsequent contrast studies in this lizard species.

Proximal duodenoileal anastomosis for treatment of small intestinal obstruction and volvulus in a green iguana (Iguana iguana)

CASE DESCRIPTION A 13-year-old female green iguana (Iguana iguana) was examined because of a 6-day history of vomiting, anorexia, and lethargy and a 4-day history of decreased fecal and urate output. CLINICAL FINDINGS Physical examination revealed a distended abdomen, signs of depression, pallor, tachycardia, harsh lung sounds, and vomiting. Abdominal radiographs revealed gas distention of the stomach and small intestine with fluid lines evident on the lateral view. Plasma biochemical analysis indicated hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis, hyperglycemia, and hyperuricemia. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Exploratory laparotomy confirmed a diagnosis of small intestinal entrapment and 170° volvulus involving approximately 80% (20 to 30 cm) of the small intestine. The portion of the small intestine extending from the middle portion of the duodenum to the caudal extent of the ileum was resected, and end-to-end anastomosis of the remaining small intestine was performed. The iguana recovered without apparent complications and was reportedly doing well 1 year after surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings suggested that iguanas, as hindgut fermenters, may tolerate > 70% resection of the small intestine with a good outcome and no clinical evidence of residual gastrointestinal dysfunction.

Radiographic anatomy and barium sulfate contrast transit time of the gastrointestinal tract of bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)

The positive contrast gastrointestinal study is a common non-invasive diagnostic technique that does not require anesthesia and enables good visualization of the digestive tract. Radiographic anatomy and reference intervals for gastrointestinal contrast transit time in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) were established using seven animals administered 15 ml/kg of a 35% w/v suspension of barium by esophageal gavage. Dorso-ventral and lateral radiographic views were performed at 0, 15, 30 min, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 h, and then every 12 h up to 96 h after barium administration. Gastric emptying was complete at a median time of 10 h (range 4-24 h). Median jejunum and small intestinal emptying times were 1 h (range 30 min-2 h) and 29 h (range 24-48 h), respectively. Median transit time for cecum was 10 h (range 8-12 h). Median time for contrast to reach the colon was 31 h (range 12-72 h) after administration. Results were compared to those obtained in other reptilian species. This technique appeared safe in fasted bearded dragons and would be clinically applicable in other lizard species.

Evaluation of liver parenchyma and perfusion using dynamic contrast-enhanced computed tomography and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography in captive green iguanas (Iguana iguana) under general anesthesia

Background

Contrast-enhanced diagnostic imaging techniques are considered useful in veterinary and human medicine to evaluate liver perfusion and focal hepatic lesions. Although hepatic diseases are a common occurrence in reptile medicine, there is no reference to the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) and contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CECT) to evaluate the liver in lizards. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the pattern of change in echogenicity and attenuation of the liver in green iguanas (Iguana iguana) after administration of specific contrast media.

Results

An increase in liver echogenicity and density was evident during CEUS and CECT, respectively. In CEUS, the mean ± SD (median; range) peak enhancement was 19.9% ± 7.5 (18.3; 11.7-34.6). Time to peak enhancement was 134.0 ± 125.1 (68.4; 59.6-364.5) seconds. During CECT, first visualization of the contrast medium was at 3.6 ± 0.5 (4; 3-4) seconds in the aorta, 10.7 ± 2.2 (10.5; 7-14) seconds in the hepatic arteries, and 15 ± 4.5 (14.5; 10-24) seconds in the liver parenchyma. Time to peak was 14.1 ± 3.4 (13; 11-21) and 31 ± 9.6 (29; 23-45) seconds in the aorta and the liver parenchyma, respectively.

Conclusion

CEUS and dynamic CECT are practical means to determine liver hemodynamics in green iguanas. Distribution of contrast medium in iguana differed from mammals. Specific reference ranges of hepatic perfusion for diagnostic evaluation of the liver in iguanas are necessary since the use of mammalian references may lead the clinician to formulate incorrect diagnostic suspicions.

Nutritional support of reptile patients

Providing nutritional support to reptile patients is a challenging and often misunderstood task. Ill reptiles are frequently anorexic and can benefit greatly from appropriate nutrition delivered via a variety of assist-feeding techniques. Neonatal reptiles can also be very challenging patients because many fail to thrive without significant efforts to establish normal feeding behaviors. This article presents ideas supporting the benefit of timely nutritional support as well as specific recommendations for implementation of assist feeding. Also discussed are a few nutritional issues that affect captive reptile species.

Comparison of Gastrografin to barium sulfate as a gastrointestinal contrast agent in red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans)

Red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans) commonly develop intestinal obstruction. The gastrointestinal transit time in turtles tends to be longer than in other animals, making a rapid diagnosis of obstruction difficult. Fifteen red-eared sliders were given either Gastrografin or 30% w/v barium sulfate orally to compare ease of administration, transit time, and image quality. Each contrast medium was easy to administer but barium sulfate had to be administered more slowly (mean = 40s) than Gastrografin (mean = 20s) to prevent regurgitation. The mean transit and emptying time of Gastrografin was at least 9 h faster than barium sulfate at all time points except gastric transit. Both contrast media had a smooth, uniform appearance that outlined the mucosa with well-defined margins within the stomach and proximal small intestine. Dilution of Gastrografin occurred as it progressed through the intestines, resulting in decreased opacity in the distal small intestine and colon. Pre-administration packed cell volume and total serum protein levels of four turtles receiving Gastrografin were compared with levels at 24-, 96-, and 168-hours postadministration as well as to four control turtles not receiving contrast medium. Packed cell volume and total serum protein levels did not significantly differ among the Gastrografin and control group. From a clinical perspective, administration of Gastrografin allows for quicker results with only minor hematologic changes in red-eared sliders, but visualization of this contrast medium in the lower gastrointestinal tract may be insufficient for an accurate diagnosis.

Selected infectious diseases of reptiles

Bacterial, fungal, and parasitic diseases in reptiles are occasionally caused by primary pathogens, but often are the result of an immunocompromising condition, such as inappropriate temperatures, humidity, or enclosure hygiene. Treating bacterial and fungal diseases usually requires addressing the predisposing husbandry deficiency. Recent comprehensive publications list many reported bacterial, fungal, and parasitic pathogens. This article discusses general methods for diagnosing and treating infectious diseases, and discusses certain diseases in relation to body systems. Special attention is given to recently reported diseases.

Ingesta passage and gastric emptying times in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

Ingesta passage times of soft flat foam dishes and gastric emptying time of barium-impregnated polyethylene spheres (BIPS) were measured in 22 and 8 loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), respectively. Transit time (T(1)) was considered as the time between ingestion and first elimination, and retention time (T(50)) and total transit time (T(85)) the expulsion time of 50% and 85% of the markers, respectively. The experiments were carried out at different times of the year and water temperature was recorded. A set of dorso-ventral radiographs was taken to locate the BIPS, and the gastrointestinal anatomy of 5 dead turtles was studied to help with interpretation of the radiographs. No significant correlation was observed between T(1), T(50), T(85) and minimum straight carapace length (SCLmin) or body mass and no statistical difference was found in ingesta passage transit times between juvenile (n = 6) and sub-adult turtles (n = 16). Mean passage times of the dishes (in days) were: T(1) = 9.05, T(50) = 12.00 and T(85) = 13.19. Gastric emptying time using BIPS was 24-48 h. The transit time (T(1)) for the BIPS was longer (13.25 +/- 4.86 days) than the foam markers (8.5 +/- 2.73 days) in 8 turtles studied simultaneously. Although the total transit time tended to be faster in turtles submitted to water temperatures between 20 degrees C and 23.6 degrees C no significant correlation was observed between T(1), T(50) and T(85) and the temperature.

Normal echoanatomy of the red-eared slider terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans )

Thirty red-eared slider terrapins (Trachemys scripta elegans) were examined by ultrasound to establish the normal ultrasonographic appearance of their coelomic structures. They were not sedated, and owing to their small size they were examined through the inguinal window of the carapace. High resolution transducers (7.5 and 11 MHz) enhanced the ultrasonographic imaging of the bowel, urinary bladder, liver, gall bladder, heart, kidney and gonads, but the pancreas, adrenal glands, thyroid glands and spleen could not be visualised.

Relationship between metabolic bone disease and bone mineral density measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in the green iguana (Iguana iguana)

The aim of our work was to study the feasibility of using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry to obtain reference bone density values in relation to body weight, gender, and metabolic bone disease in the green iguana. The study was performed on 28 animals. The weight, age, and gender of each iguana were recorded. Each lizard was carefully examined and radiographed to detect signs of metabolic bone disease. Blood samples were collected from each animal to evaluate Ca/P and total protein. All animals, both affected (group B; n = 11) and unaffected (group A; n = 17) by metabolic bone disease, were individually scanned using an X-ray densitometer. The regions of interest were the head, lumbar spine, right, and left femur. Statistical analysis was performed separately for each region of interest. Body weight had the strongest relationship with bone density (P < 0.01). Within regions of interest, for iguanas of average weight (710 g), statistically significant differences between healthy and sick animals were found: head (0.140 vs. 0.090 g/cm2; P < 0.01); lumbar spine (0.164 vs. 0.107 g/cm2; P < 0.01); right femur (0.103 vs. 0.076 g/cm2; P < 0.01); left femur (0.103 vs. 0.078 g/cm2; P < 0.01). Regression equations to obtain reference values of bone density as a function of body weight for animals affected and not affected by metabolic bone disease are provided. Our data indicate that X-ray bone densitometry is an additional tool for studying bone pathophysiology in reptiles.