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Dobrescu A, Constantin AM, Pinte L, Chapman A, Ratajczak P, Klerings I, Emprechtinger R, Allegranzi B, Zingg W, Grayson ML, Toledo J, Gartlehner G, Nussbaumer-Streit B. Effectiveness and Safety of Measures to Prevent Infections and Other Complications Associated With Peripheral Intravenous Catheters: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:1640-1655. [PMID: 38593192 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peripheral intravenous catheters (PIVCs) contribute substantially to the global burden of infections. This systematic review assessed 24 infection prevention and control (IPC) interventions to prevent PIVC-associated infections and other complications. METHODS We searched Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, WHO Global Index Medicus, CINAHL, and reference lists for controlled studies from 1 January 1980-16 March 2023. We dually selected studies, assessed risk of bias, extracted data, and rated the certainty of evidence (COE). For outcomes with 3 or more trials, we conducted Bayesian random-effects meta-analyses. RESULTS 105 studies met our prespecified eligibility criteria, addressing 16 of the 24 research questions; no studies were identified for 8 research questions. Based on findings of low to high COE, wearing gloves reduced the risk of overall adverse events related to insertion compared with no gloves (1 non-randomized controlled trial [non-RCT]; adjusted risk ratio [RR], .52; 95% CI, .33-.85), and catheter removal based on defined schedules potentially resulted in a lower phlebitis/thrombophlebitis incidence (10 RCTs; RR, 0.74, 95% credible interval, .49-1.01) compared with clinically indicated removal in adults. In neonates, chlorhexidine reduced the phlebitis score compared with non-chlorhexidine-containing disinfection (1 RCT; 0.14 vs 0.68; P = .003). No statistically significant differences were found for other measures. CONCLUSIONS Despite their frequent use and concern about PIVC-associated complications, this review underscores the urgent need for more high-quality studies on effective IPC methods regarding safe PIVC management. In the absence of valid evidence, adherence to standard precaution measures and documentation remain the most important principles to curb PIVC complications. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION The protocol was registered in the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/exdb4).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreea Dobrescu
- Department for Evidence-based Medicine and Evaluation, Cochrane Austria, University for Continuing Education Krems, Krems, Austria
| | - Alexandru Marian Constantin
- Department of Internal Medicine Clinical Hospital Colentina, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Carol Davila", Bucharest, Romania
| | - Larisa Pinte
- Department of Internal Medicine Clinical Hospital Colentina, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Carol Davila", Bucharest, Romania
| | - Andrea Chapman
- Department for Evidence-based Medicine and Evaluation, Cochrane Austria, University for Continuing Education Krems, Krems, Austria
| | - Piotr Ratajczak
- Department of Pharmacoeconomics and Social Pharmacy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Irma Klerings
- Department for Evidence-based Medicine and Evaluation, Cochrane Austria, University for Continuing Education Krems, Krems, Austria
| | - Robert Emprechtinger
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité (BIH), BIH QUEST Center for Responsible Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Benedetta Allegranzi
- Infection Prevention and Control Unit, Department of Integrated Health Services, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Walter Zingg
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M Lindsay Grayson
- Infection Prevention and Control Unit, Department of Integrated Health Services, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- Infectious Diseases Department, Austin Health, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Joao Toledo
- Infection Prevention and Control Unit, Department of Integrated Health Services, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
- High Impact Epidemics, WHO Health Emergencies Program, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Gartlehner
- Department for Evidence-based Medicine and Evaluation, Cochrane Austria, University for Continuing Education Krems, Krems, Austria
- Center for Public Health Methods, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Barbara Nussbaumer-Streit
- Department for Evidence-based Medicine and Evaluation, Cochrane Austria, University for Continuing Education Krems, Krems, Austria
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Marsh N, Larsen EN, Ullman AJ, Mihala G, Cooke M, Chopra V, Ray-Barruel G, Rickard CM. Peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud 2024; 151:104673. [PMID: 38142634 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2023.104673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peripheral intravenous catheters are the most frequently used invasive device in nursing practice, yet are commonly associated with complications. We performed a systematic review to determine the prevalence of peripheral intravenous catheter infection and all-cause failure. METHODS The Cochrane Library, PubMed, CINAHL, and EMBASE were searched for observational studies and randomised controlled trials that reported peripheral intravenous catheter related infections or failure. The review was limited to English language and articles published from the year 2000. Pooled estimates were calculated with random-effects models. Meta-analysis of observation studies in epidemiology guidelines and the Cochrane process for randomised controlled trials were used to guide the review. Prospero registration number: CRD42022349956. FINDINGS Our search retrieved 34,725 studies. Of these, 41 observational studies and 28 randomised controlled trials (478,586 peripheral intravenous catheters) met inclusion criteria. The pooled proportion of catheter-associated bloodstream infections was 0.028 % (95 % confidence interval (CI): 0.009-0.081; 38 studies), or 4.40 catheter-associated bloodstream infections per 100,000 catheter-days (20 studies, 95 % CI: 3.47-5.58). Local infection was reported in 0.150 % of peripheral intravenous catheters (95 % CI: 0.047-0.479, 30 studies) with an incidence rate of 65.1 per 100,000 catheter-days (16 studies; 95 % CI: 49.2-86.2). All cause peripheral intravenous catheter failure before treatment completion occurred in 36.4 % of catheters (95 % CI: 31.7-41.3, 53 studies) with an overall incidence rate of 4.42 per 100 catheter days (78,891 catheter days; 19 studies; 95 % CI: 4.27-4.57). INTERPRETATION Peripheral intravenous catheter failure is a significant worldwide problem, affecting one in three catheters. Per peripheral intravenous catheter, infection occurrence was low, however, with over two billion catheters used globally each year, the absolute number of infections and associated burden remains high. Substantial and systemwide efforts are needed to address peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure and the sequelae of treatment disruption, increased health costs and poor patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Marsh
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Nursing, Midwifery and Social Work, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Emily N Larsen
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Amanda J Ullman
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Nursing, Midwifery and Social Work, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Children's Health Research, Children's Health Queensland Hospital and Health Service, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Gabor Mihala
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Marie Cooke
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Vineet Chopra
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America; The Michigan Hospital Medicine Safety Consortium, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Gillian Ray-Barruel
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Nursing, Midwifery and Social Work, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Herston Infectious Diseases Institute, Metro North Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Claire M Rickard
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Medicine, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Nursing, Midwifery and Social Work, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Herston Infectious Diseases Institute, Metro North Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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López-Briz E, Ruiz Garcia V, Cabello JB, Bort-Martí S, Carbonell Sanchis R. Heparin versus 0.9% sodium chloride locking for prevention of occlusion in central venous catheters in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2022; 7:CD008462. [PMID: 35849083 PMCID: PMC9291254 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd008462.pub4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intermittent locking of central venous catheters (CVCs) is undertaken to help maintain their patency and performance. There are systematic variations in care: some practitioners use heparin (at different concentrations), whilst others use 0.9% sodium chloride (normal saline). This review looks at the effectiveness and safety of intermittent locking with heparin compared to normal saline, to see if the evidence establishes whether one is better than the other. This is an update of an earlier Cochrane Review. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the benefits and harms of intermittent locking of CVCs with heparin versus normal saline in adults to prevent occlusion. SEARCH METHODS We used standard, extensive Cochrane search methods. The latest search date was 20 October 2021. SELECTION CRITERIA We included randomised controlled trials in adults ≥ 18 years of age with a CVC that compared intermittent locking with heparin at any concentration versus normal saline. We excluded studies on infants and children from this review. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS We used standard Cochrane methods. Our primary outcomes were occlusion of CVCs and duration of catheter patency. Our secondary outcomes were CVC-related bloodstream infections and CVC-related colonisation, mortality, haemorrhage, heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia, CVC-related thrombosis, number of additional CVC insertions, abnormality of coagulation profile and allergic reactions to heparin. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of evidence for each outcome. MAIN RESULTS We identified one new RCT with 30 participants for this update. We included a total of 12 RCTs with 2422 participants. Data for meta-analysis were available from all RCTs. We noted differences in methods used by the included studies and variation in heparin concentrations (10 to 5000 IU/mL), time to follow-up (1 to 251.8 days), and the unit of analysis used (participant, catheter, line access). Five studies included ICU (intensive care unit) patients, two studies included oncology patients, and the remaining studies included miscellaneous patients (chronic kidney disease, haemodialysis, home care patients, etc.). Primary outcomes Overall, combined results may show fewer occlusions with heparin compared to normal saline but this is uncertain (risk ratio (RR) 0.70, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.51 to 0.95; 10 studies; 1672 participants; low-certainty evidence). We pooled studies that used participant or catheter as the unit of analysis. We carried out subgroup analysis by unit of analysis. No clear differences were detected after testing for subgroup differences (P = 0.23). We found no clear evidence of a difference in the duration of catheter patency with heparin compared to normal saline (mean difference (MD) 0.44 days, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.99; 6 studies; 1788 participants; low-certainty evidence). Secondary outcomes We found no clear evidence of a difference in the following outcomes: CVC-related bloodstream infections (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.08 to 5.80; 3 studies; 1127 participants; very low-certainty evidence); mortality (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.31; 3 studies; 1100 participants; very low-certainty evidence); haemorrhage (RR 1.54, 95% CI 0.41 to 5.74; 3 studies; 1197 participants; very low-certainty evidence); or heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia (RR 0.21, 95% CI 0.01 to 4.27; 3 studies; 443 participants; very low-certainty evidence). The main reasons for downgrading the certainty of evidence for the primary and secondary outcomes were unclear allocation concealment, suspicion of publication bias, imprecision and inconsistency. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Given the low-certainty evidence, we are uncertain whether intermittent locking with heparin results in fewer central venous catheter occlusions than intermittent locking with normal saline in adults. Low-certainty evidence suggests that heparin may have little or no effect on catheter patency duration. Although we found no evidence of differences in safety (CVC-related bloodstream infections, mortality, or haemorrhage), the combined studies were not powered to detect rare adverse events such as heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia. Further research conducted over longer periods would reduce the current uncertainties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo López-Briz
- Department of Pharmacy & CASP Spain, La Fe University Hospital, Valencia, Spain
| | - Vicente Ruiz Garcia
- Hospital at Home Unit & CASPe Spain, La Fe University Hospital, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan B Cabello
- Department of Cardiology & CASP Spain, Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
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Blanco-Mavillard I, de Pedro-Gómez JE, Rodríguez-Calero MÁ, Bennasar-Veny M, Parra-García G, Fernández-Fernández I, Bujalance-Hoyos J, Moya-Suárez AB, Cobo-Sánchez JL, Ferrer-Cruz F, Castro-Sánchez E. Multimodal intervention for preventing peripheral intravenous catheter failure in adults (PREBACP): a multicentre, cluster-randomised, controlled trial. LANCET HAEMATOLOGY 2021; 8:e637-e647. [PMID: 34450101 DOI: 10.1016/s2352-3026(21)00206-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 2 billion peripheral intravenous catheters (PIVC) are inserted into inpatients worldwide each year. Almost one in two PIVCs fail before completion of intravenous therapy. We aimed to determine the efficacy and costs of a multimodal intervention to reduce PIVC failure among hospitalised patients. METHODS PREBACP was a cluster-randomised, controlled trial done at seven public hospitals in Spain. Clusters (hospital wards) had at least 70% permanent staff and data were collected from patients aged 18 years and older with one or more PIVCs at the start of intravenous therapy. Clusters were randomly assigned (1:1) to the multimodal intervention or control group using a centralised, web-based randomisation software, and stratified by type of setting. We concealed randomisation to allocation, without masking patients or professionals to the intervention. An intervention using a multimodal model and dissemination of protocols, education for health-care professionals and patients, and feedback on performance was implemented for 12 months in the intervention group. The control group received usual care. The primary outcome was all-cause PIVC failure at 12 months (phlebitis, extravasation, obstruction, or infections). Subsequently, through an amendment to the protocol approved on July 25, 2021, we included dislodgement as part of PIVC failure. Analysis was by modified intention to treat, which included all randomly assigned hospital wards for whom data on the primary endpoint were available. This trial is registered with the ISRCTN Registry, ISRCTN10438530. FINDINGS Between Jan 1, 2019, and March 1, 2020, we randomly assigned 22 eligible clusters to receive the multimodal intervention (n=11 clusters; 2196 patients, 2235 PIVCs, and 131 nurses) or usual practice in the control group (n=11 clusters; 2282 patients, 2330 PIVCs, and 138 nurses). At 12 months, the proportion of PIVC failures was lower in the intervention group than in the control group (37·10% [SD 1·32], HR 0·81 [95% CI 0·72 to 0·92] vs 46·49% [2·59], HR 1·23 [1·04 to 1·39]; mean difference -9·39% [95% CI -11·22 to -7·57]; p<0·0001). Per-protocol-prespecified analysis of the primary outcome excluding dislodgement also showed the intervention significantly reduced PIVC failure compared with the control group at 12 months (33·47% [SD 2·98], HR 0·85 [95% CI 0·75 to 0·96] vs 41·06% [4·62], HR 1·18 [1·04 to 1·33]; mean difference -7·59% [95% CI -11·05 to -4·13]; p<0·0001). INTERPRETATION A multimodal intervention reduced PIVC failure, thereby reducing potentially serious complications for hospitalised patients. The findings of PREBACP enabled a deeper understanding of decision making, knowledge mobilisation, and sense making in routine clinical practice. FUNDING The College of Nurses of the Balearic Islands. TRANSLATION For the Spanish translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Blanco-Mavillard
- Quality, Teaching and Research Unit, Hospital de Manacor, Manacor, Spain; Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma, Spain; Care, Chronicity and Evidence in Health Research Group, Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain.
| | - Joan Ernest de Pedro-Gómez
- Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma, Spain; Care, Chronicity and Evidence in Health Research Group, Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Rodríguez-Calero
- Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma, Spain; Care, Chronicity and Evidence in Health Research Group, Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain; Health Care Office, Balearic Islands Health Service, Palma, Spain
| | - Miquel Bennasar-Veny
- Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Ana Belén Moya-Suárez
- Department of Nursing, Agencia Sanitaria Costa del Sol, Marbella, Málaga, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | | | | | - Enrique Castro-Sánchez
- City, University of London, London, UK; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Marsh N, Webster J, Ullman AJ, Mihala G, Cooke M, Chopra V, Rickard CM. Peripheral intravenous catheter non‐infectious complications in adults: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Adv Nurs 2020; 76:3346-3362. [DOI: 10.1111/jan.14565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Marsh
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- School of Nursing and Midwifery Griffith University Brisbane Australia
| | - Joan Webster
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Amanda J. Ullman
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- School of Nursing and Midwifery Griffith University Brisbane Australia
| | - Gabor Mihala
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- School of Medicine Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Centre for Applied Health Economics Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Marie Cooke
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- School of Nursing and Midwifery Griffith University Brisbane Australia
| | - Vineet Chopra
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Division of Hospital Medicine Department of Medicine University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
| | - Claire M. Rickard
- Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Brisbane Queensland Australia
- School of Nursing and Midwifery Griffith University Brisbane Australia
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Sotnikova C, Fasoi G, Efstathiou F, Kaba E, Bourazani M, Kelesi M. The Efficacy of Normal Saline (N/S 0.9%) Versus Heparin Solution in Maintaining Patency of Peripheral Venous Catheter and Avoiding Complications: a Systematic Review. Mater Sociomed 2020; 32:29-34. [PMID: 32410888 PMCID: PMC7219714 DOI: 10.5455/msm.2020.32.29-34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Heparin is a sulfated polysaccharide belonging to the glycosaminoglycan family with strong anticoagulant activity. It has been widely used to maintain intravascular catheters in patients requiring intravenous medication. It is believed that heparin prevents thrombus formation in the intravascular catheter, but since the 1980s, the necessity of the heparin solution for peripheral intravenous catheter (PIVC) flushing has been questioned in several clinical trials. According to the Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP), there are four special categories of High Alert Medications (HAMs), including heparin. AIM The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the efficacy of normal saline versus heparin solution in maintaining the patency and functionality of the PIVC and avoiding complications. METHODOLOGY A systematic review using PubMed and Cochrane Library databases was conducted. Original research studies of hospitalized patients with PIVC, regardless of age, published in English, over the last decade (2009-2019) were eligible for inclusion. RESULTS The review concluded in 10 studies that met the inclusion criteria. From these studies, it appears that it is not fully documented whether the normal saline (N/S 0,9%) is superior to heparin solution (H/S) in the flushing of the PIVC for maintaining its patency and prevent complications. Researchers tend to support the use of N/S 0,9% due to safety, error avoidance, efficiency, ease of use and cost-effectiveness. Concern about the possible complications of the heparin solution was the cause of guidelines development for N/S 0,9% in countries such as Australia. CONCLUSIONS The use of normal saline seems to outweigh the heparin solution in maintaining the patency of PIVC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Georgia Fasoi
- Department of Nursing, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Evridiki Kaba
- Department of Nursing, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Bourazani
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hellenic Anticancer Institute, Saint Savvas Hospital, Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Martha Kelesi
- Department of Nursing, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
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Pérez-Granda MJ, Bouza E, Pinilla B, Cruces R, González A, Millán J, Guembe M. Randomized clinical trial analyzing maintenance of peripheral venous catheters in an internal medicine unit: Heparin vs. saline. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0226251. [PMID: 31905205 PMCID: PMC6944354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Peripheral venous catheters (PVCs) require adequate maintenance based on heparin or saline locks in order to prevent complications. Heparin has proven effective in central venous catheters, although its use in PVCs remains controversial. Our hypothesis was that saline locks are as effective as heparin locks in preventing problems with PVCs. The objective of the present study was to compare phlebitis and catheter tip colonization rates between PVCs locked with saline and those locked with heparin in patients admitted to an internal medicine department (IMD). Methods We performed a 19-month prospective, controlled, open-label, randomized clinical study of patients with at least 1 PVC admitted to the IMD of our hospital. The patients were randomized to receive saline solution (PosiFlush®, group A) or heparin (Fibrilin®, group B) for daily maintenance of the PVC. Clinical and microbiological data were monitored to investigate the frequency of phlebitis, catheter tip colonization, and catheter-related bloodstream infection (C-RBSI), as well as crude mortality, days of hospital stay, and days of antimicrobial treatment. Results We assessed 339 PVCs (241 patients), of which 192 (56.6%) were locked with saline (group A) and 147 (43.4%) with heparin (group B). The main demographic characteristics of the patients were distributed equally between the 2 study groups. The median (IQR) catheter days was 5 (3–8) for both groups (p = 0.64). The frequency of phlebitis was 17.7% for group A and 13.3% for group B (p = 0.30). The frequency of colonization of PVC tips was 14.6% and 12.2% in groups A and B, respectively (p = 0.63). Only 2 episodes of C-RBSI were detected (1 patient in group A). Saline lock was not an independent factor for phlebitis or catheter colonization. Conclusions Our study revealed no statistically significant differences in the frequency of phlebitis and catheter tip colonization between PVCs locked with saline and PVCs locked with heparin. We suggest that PVC can be maintained with saline solution, as it is safer and cheaper than heparin.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Jesús Pérez-Granda
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, H.G.U. Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Nursing, School of Nursing, Physiotherapy and Podiatry, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias-CIBERES (CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail: (MG); (MJP-G)
| | - Emilio Bouza
- CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias-CIBERES (CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
- Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Infection Study Group of the Sociedad Española de Medicina Interna, Madrid, Spain
| | - Blanca Pinilla
- Infection Study Group of the Sociedad Española de Medicina Interna, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Internal Medicine, H.G.U. Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Cruces
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, H.G.U. Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ariana González
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Millán
- Department of Internal Medicine, H.G.U. Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Guembe
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, H.G.U. Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail: (MG); (MJP-G)
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Hawthorn A, Bulmer AC, Mosawy S, Keogh S. Implications for maintaining vascular access device patency and performance: Application of science to practice. J Vasc Access 2019; 20:461-470. [DOI: 10.1177/1129729818820200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction:Vascular access devices are commonly inserted devices that facilitate the administration of fluids and drugs, as well as blood sampling. Despite their common use in clinical settings, these devices are prone to occlusion and failure, requiring replacement and exposing the patient to ongoing discomfort/pain, local vessel inflammation and risk of infection. A range of insertion and maintenance strategies are employed to optimize device performance; however, the evidence base for many of these mechanisms is limited and the mechanisms contributing to the failure of these devices are largely unknown.Aims/objectives:(1) To revisit existing understanding of blood, vessel physiology and biological fluid dynamics; (2) develop an understanding of the implications that different clinical practices have on vessel health, and (3) apply these understandings to vascular access device research and practice.Method:Narrative review of biomedical and bioengineering studies related to vascular access practice.Results/outcomes:Current vascular access device insertion and maintenance practice and policy are variable with limited clinical evidence to support the theoretical assumptions underpinning these regimens. This review demonstrates the physiological response to vascular access device insertion, flushing and infusion on the vein, blood components and blood flow. These appear to be associated with changes in intravascular fluid dynamics. Variable forces are at play that impact blood componentry and the endothelium. These may explain the mechanisms contributing to vascular access failure.Conclusion:This review provides an update to our current knowledge and understanding of vascular physiology and the hemodynamic response, challenging some previously held assumptions regarding vascular access device maintenance, which require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Hawthorn
- School of Nursing, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research (AVATAR), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Andrew C Bulmer
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research (AVATAR), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Sapha Mosawy
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Samantha Keogh
- School of Nursing, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Alliance for Vascular Access Teaching and Research (AVATAR), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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9
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Abstract
Peripheral intravenous (IV) catheter insertion, the most common invasive hospital procedure performed worldwide, is associated with a variety of complications and an unacceptably high overall failure rate of 35% to 50% in even the best of hands. Catheter failure is costly to patients, caregivers, and the health care system. Although advances have been made, analysis of the mechanisms underlying the persistent high rate of peripheral IV failure reveals opportunities for improvement.
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10
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López‐Briz E, Ruiz Garcia V, Cabello JB, Bort‐Martí S, Carbonell Sanchis R, Burls A. Heparin versus 0.9% sodium chloride locking for prevention of occlusion in central venous catheters in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 7:CD008462. [PMID: 30058070 PMCID: PMC6513298 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd008462.pub3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intermittent locking of central venous catheters (CVCs) is undertaken to help maintain their patency. There are systematic variations in care: some practitioners use heparin (at different concentrations), whilst others use 0.9% NaCl (normal saline). This review looks at the effectiveness and safety of intermittent locking with heparin compared to 0.9% NaCl to see if the evidence establishes whether one is better than the other. This work is an update of a review first published in 2014. OBJECTIVES To assess the effectiveness and safety of intermittent locking of CVCs with heparin versus normal saline (NS) in adults to prevent occlusion. SEARCH METHODS The Cochrane Vascular Information Specialist (CIS) searched the Specialised Register (last searched 11 June 2018) and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; 2018, Issue 5). Searches were also carried out in MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and clinical trials databases (11 June 2018). SELECTION CRITERIA We included randomised controlled trials in adults ≥ 18 years of age with a CVC that compared intermittent locking with heparin at any concentration versus NS. We applied no restriction on language. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors independently selected trials, assessed quality, and extracted data. We contacted trial authors to retrieve additional information, when necessary. We carried out statistical analysis using Review Manager 5 and assessed the overall quality of the evidence supporting assessed outcomes using GRADE. We carried out prespecified subgroup analysis. MAIN RESULTS We identified five new studies for this update (six prior studies were included in the original review), bringing the number of eligible studies to 11, with a total of 2392 participants. We noted differences in methods used by the included studies and variation in heparin concentrations (10 to 5000 IU/mL), time to follow-up (1 to 251.8 days), and the unit of analysis used (participant, catheter, line access).Combined results from these studies showed fewer occlusions with heparin than with NS (risk ratio (RR) 0.70, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.51 to 0.95; P = 0.02; 1672 participants; 1025 catheters from 10 studies; I² = 14%) and provided very low-quality evidence.We carried out subgroup analysis by unit of analysis (testing for subgroup differences (P = 0.23; I² = 30.3%). When the unit of analysis was the participant, results show no clear differences in all occlusions between heparin and NS (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.08; P = 0.15; 1672 participants; seven studies). Subgroup analysis using the catheter as the unit of analysis shows fewer occlusions with heparin use (RR 0.53, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.95; P = 0.03; 1025 catheters; three studies). When the unit of analysis was line access, results show no clear differences in occlusions between heparin and NS (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.40; 770 line accesses; one study).We found no clear differences in the duration of catheter patency (mean difference (MD) 0.44 days, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.99; P = 0.11; 1036 participants; 752 catheters; six studies; low-quality evidence).We found no clear evidence of a difference in the following: CVC-related sepsis (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.03 to 19.54; P = 0.86; 1097 participants; two studies; low-quality evidence); mortality (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.31; P = 0.33; 1100 participants; three studies; low-quality evidence); haemorrhage at any site (RR 1.32, 95% CI 0.57 to 3.07; P = 0.52; 1245 participants; four studies; moderate-quality evidence); or heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia (RR 0.21, 95% CI 0.01 to 4.27; P = 0.31; 443 participants; three studies; low-quality evidence).The main reasons for downgrading the quality of evidence were unclear allocation concealment, imprecision, and suspicion of publication bias. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Given the very low quality of the evidence, we are uncertain whether intermittent locking with heparin results in fewer occlusions than intermittent locking with NS. Low-quality evidence suggests that heparin may have little or no effect on catheter patency. Although we found no evidence of differences in safety (sepsis, mortality, or haemorrhage), the combined trials are not powered to detect rare adverse events such as heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo López‐Briz
- La Fe University HospitalDepartment of Pharmacy & CASP SpainAvda Fernando Abril Martorell 106ValenciaValenciaSpain46026
| | - Vicente Ruiz Garcia
- La Fe University HospitalHospital at Home Unit & CASPe SpainAv Fernando Abril Martorell nº 106ValenciaSpain46026
| | - Juan B Cabello
- Hospital General Universitario de AlicanteDepartment of Cardiology & CASP SpainPintor Baeza 12AlicanteAlicanteSpain03010
| | | | | | - Amanda Burls
- City University LondonSchool of Health SciencesMyddleton StreetLondonUKEC1V 0HB
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11
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Urbanetto JDS, Freitas APCD, Oliveira APRD, Santos JDCRD, Muniz FDOM, Silva RMD, Schilling MCL. Risk factors for the development of phlebitis: an integrative review of literature. Rev Gaucha Enferm 2018; 38:e57489. [PMID: 29933415 DOI: 10.1590/1983-1447.2017.04.57489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the scientific evidence published in literature regarding the risk factors for the development of phlebitis. METHOD Integrative literature review with the inclusion of 14 original articles found in the LILACS, Scielo and Pubmed bases from January 2004 to April 2015, analyzed by levels of evidence and frequency, associated factors, degree and treatment of phlebitis. RESULTS The frequency / incidence / minimum rate of phlebitis was 3% and the maximum was 59.1%. Most articles (57.14%) reported an association of phlebitis with risk factors, including the dwell time, puncture site and / or anatomical region, hospitalization period, number of accesses, reason for removal, sex, antibiotics, intermittent maintenance and emergency insertion. CONCLUSIONS The need for standardizing the quantification of this event and a weak connection between the risk factors associated with phlebitis were identified. Further studies need to be developed in order to grant a real understanding of this disease in the daily routines of a hospital.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janete de Souza Urbanetto
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Ana Paula Christo de Freitas
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Ana Paula Ribeiro de Oliveira
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Jessica de Cassia Ramos Dos Santos
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Franciele de Oliveira Minuto Muniz
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Renata Martins da Silva
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Maria Cristina Lore Schilling
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Faculdade de Enfermagem, Nutrição e Fisioterapia (FAENFI), Curso de Graduação em Enfermagem. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
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12
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Braga LM, Parreira PMDSD, Arreguy-Sena C, Carlos DM, Mónico LDSM, Henriques MAP. TAXA DE INCIDÊNCIA E O USO DO FLUSHING NA PREVENÇÃO DAS OBSTRUÇÕES DE CATETER VENOSO PERIFÉRICO. TEXTO & CONTEXTO ENFERMAGEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/0104-07072018002810017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO Objetivo: avaliar a incidência cumulativa de obstrução do cateter venoso periférico e identificar o uso do flushing para prevenção das obstruções. Método: método misto, com estudo de coorte descritivo com seguimento de 110 pacientes de uma clínica médica de Portugal. A coleta de dados envolveu entrevistas com 22 enfermeiros, análise documental e observação participante. Realizada análise temática dos achados qualitativos e análise descritiva para os dados quantitativos. Resultados: a incidência cumulativa de obstrução foi 50%. As categorias temáticas desvelaram que o flushing era um cuidado para prevenção da obstrução do cateter venoso e realizado antes e/ou após a administração dos medicamentos. O volume de solução fisiológica utilizado no flushing variou entre 3 e 10 ml. Verificaram-se, também, situações de não adesão ao flushing e fatores que influenciavam nesta adesão, a saber: o tempo para realizar os cuidados, a complexidade e o grau de dependência dos pacientes, o volume de trabalho e o número de enfermeiros para prestar os cuidados. Conclusão: o flushing é um cuidado de enfermagem para a prevenção da obstrução do cateter venoso periférico, no entanto, as práticas de enfermagem para implementação não são uniformes quanto a frequência e volume de solução fisiológica. A ausência de um protocolo de enfermagem, a complexidade e o grau de dependência dos pacientes, o volume de trabalho e o número de enfermeiros são fatores capazes de influenciar na adesão à prática do flushing e consequentemente na incidência de obstrução do cateter venoso periférico e na segurança do paciente e qualidade dos cuidados.
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13
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You T, Jiang J, Chen J, Xu W, Xiang L, Jiao Y. Necessity of heparin for maintaining peripheral venous catheters: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Exp Ther Med 2017; 14:1675-1684. [PMID: 28810636 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin has typically been used as a flushing or infusion solution for vascular lines in daily practice. However, several clinical trials have yielded controversial results about the benefits of heparin in maintaining peripheral venous catheters. The present meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of heparin on the patency profiles and complications in peripheral intravenous catheters. PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched up to February 2016 for randomized controlled trials comparing heparin with placebo in maintaining peripheral intravenous catheters. Additional studies were retrieved from the reference lists of identified articles. In total 32 eligible studies were included, from which the pooled standard mean difference (SMD), relative risk (RR) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated. The use of heparin as a continuous infusion significantly prolonged the duration of patency (SMD, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.48-1.32; P<0.001), reduced rates of infusion failure (RR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.76-0.92; P<0.001) and occlusion (RR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.69-0.98; P<0.05) in a peripheral intravenous catheter. However, there were no significant changes in the duration of patency and infusion failure when heparin was used intermittently as a flushing solution, although a significantly decreased risk of occlusion was observed in this setting (RR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.66-0.98; P<0.05). Furthermore, the risk of phlebitis was significantly decreased by both continuous infusion (RR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.58-0.75; P<0.01) and intermittent flushing (RR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.56-0.86; P<0.01) of heparin in peripheral venous catheters. In conclusion, the use of heparin as continuous infusion in peripheral intravenous catheters improved the duration of patency, reduced infusion failure and phlebitis, whereas heparin as intermittent flushing showed more benefits in ameliorating phlebitis rather than in patency profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao You
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215004, P.R. China
| | - Jianliang Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215004, P.R. China
| | - Jianchang Chen
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215004, P.R. China
| | - Weiting Xu
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215004, P.R. China
| | - Li Xiang
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215004, P.R. China
| | - Yang Jiao
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215004, P.R. China
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14
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Xu L, Hu Y, Huang X, Fu J, Zhang J. Heparinized saline versus normal saline for maintaining peripheral venous catheter patency in China: An open-label, randomized controlled study. J Int Med Res 2017; 45:471-480. [PMID: 28415937 PMCID: PMC5536662 DOI: 10.1177/0300060516685203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To evaluate the effects of heparin saline versus normal saline as locking solution for maintaining patency in peripheral venous catheters in Chinese patients. Methods This open-label, randomized controlled study was conducted in two hepatobiliary surgery wards, where patients received identical treatments, at a tertiary referral hospital. Patients were randomly divided into a normal saline group (NS, 3 ml) or a heparin saline group (HS, 50 IU/ml, 3 ml) for catheter sealing. Results The study enrolled 286 patients and 609 peripheral venous catheters were included in the analysis. The patients in the two groups had no local infections or catheter-related bloodstream infections. There were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of the rate of catheter obstruction, duration time, or the rates of phlebitis, infiltration, and accidental catheter removal. Conclusions No significant differences in the peripheral venous catheter sealing effects were observed between normal saline and heparin saline usage in Chinese patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lichun Xu
- 1 School of Nursing, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Hu
- 1 School of Nursing, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaojin Huang
- 2 Department of Vascular Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian Province, China
| | - Jianguo Fu
- 3 Department of Hospital Infection Control, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian Province, China
| | - Jinhui Zhang
- 4 Department of Nursing, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian Province, China
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15
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Abstract
Peripheral intravenous (IV) catheter insertion, the most common invasive hospital procedure performed worldwide, is associated with a variety of complications and an unacceptably high overall failure rate of 35% to 50% in even the best of hands. Catheter failure is costly to patients, caregivers, and the health care system. Although advances have been made, analysis of the mechanisms underlying the persistent high rate of peripheral IV failure reveals opportunities for improvement.
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16
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Capdevila JA, Guembe M, Barberán J, de Alarcón A, Bouza E, Fariñas MC, Gálvez J, Goenaga MA, Gutiérrez F, Kestler M, Llinares P, Miró JM, Montejo M, Muñoz P, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Sousa D, Cuenca J, Mestres CA. 2016 Expert consensus document on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of short-term peripheral venous catheter-related infections in adults. CIRUGIA CARDIOVASCULAR 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.circv.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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17
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Danski MTR, Oliveira GLRD, Johann DA, Pedrolo E, Vayego SA. Incidência de complicações locais no cateterismo venoso periférico e fatores de risco associados. ACTA PAUL ENFERM 2015. [DOI: 10.1590/1982-0194201500087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Resumo Objetivo Estimar a incidência de complicações locais associadas ao cateterismo periférico e identificar os fatores de risco associados ao desenvolvimento da complicação mais frequente. Métodos Coorte prospectiva realizada com 92 adultos submetidos a cateterismo venoso periférico, internados em unidades clínicas e cirúrgicas. Mediante observação diária do cateter, determinou-se o tempo de permanência e as complicações locais advindas do uso do Cateter de Segurança Completo, após capacitação das equipes de enfermagem. Utilizou-se os testes Exato de Fisher, G de Williams, Qui-quadrado, U de Mann-Whitney e Risco Relativo. Resultados Observou-se 56,52% de complicações locais. O tempo de permanência superior a 72 horas aumenta o risco para desenvolvimento de flebite em 2,34 (RR; p=0,0483; IC [0,91; 6,07]). Conclusão A incidência de complicações locais foi elevada, havendo predominância de flebite; o tempo de permanência superior a 72 horas foi detectado como fator de risco para sua ocorrência.
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18
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Eghbali-Babadi M, Ghadiriyan R, Hosseini SM. The effect of saline lock on phlebitis rates of patients in cardiac care units. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 2015; 20:496-501. [PMID: 26257807 PMCID: PMC4525350 DOI: 10.4103/1735-9066.161006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Background: Despite advances in the field of intravenous therapy, phlebitis is still a common complication of peripheral venous catheter and finding an appropriate solution to prevent and reduce the incidence of this complication remains challenging. One of the methods used in reducing the incidence of phlebitis is the use of saline lock, which is forgotten in most hospitals. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate its impact on the incidence and severity of phlebitis. Materials and Methods: In a single-blind (the researcher) clinical trial, 88 patients with peripheral venous catheter admitted in cardiac care units in selected hospitals of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Iran, were selected through convenient sampling method. They were randomly divided into two groups of intervention and control groups using random number table. The intervention group received 3 ml of 0.9% normal saline sterilized before and after each intravenous drug or every 12 h. However, in the control group, the intravenous drugs were given as routine and saline lock was not used. The evaluation of intravenous catheter regarding the incidence of phlebitis and its degrees using Jackson's Visual Infusion Phlebitis Scale was performed 6 times within 72 h (every 12 h). Results were evaluated by SPSS software using descriptive statistics, Chi-square test, t-test, and Mann–Whitney test. Results: Results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups regarding the degree of phlebitis (P = 0.003). The percentage of phlebitis incidence in the control group was 88.6% and in the intervention group was 43.2%. There was a statistically significant difference between the two groups (P < 0.001). The risk of incidence of phlebitis in the group without saline lock (control), compared to the intervention group, was 10.3 times greater (CI = 95%). The incidence of phlebitis in both groups increased with increase in the duration of catheter placement. Conclusions: The results of this study showed that the use of saline lock in the intervention group compared to the control group, in which saline lock was not used, can have a significant impact on reducing the incidence of phlebitis and its degree.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Eghbali-Babadi
- Hypertension Research Center, Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Institute, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Raziyeh Ghadiriyan
- Student Research Center, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Sayed Mohsen Hosseini
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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Wang R, Zhang MG, Luo O, He L, Li JX, Tang YJ, Luo YL, Zhou M, Tang L, Zhang ZX, Wu H, Chen XZ. Heparin Saline Versus Normal Saline for Flushing and Locking Peripheral Venous Catheters in Decompensated Liver Cirrhosis Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015; 94:e1292. [PMID: 26252305 PMCID: PMC4616592 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000001292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A prospective randomized, controlled, single-blinded trial to compare the effectiveness and safety of heparin saline (HS) to those of normal saline (NS) as flushing and locking solutions for peripheral venous catheter (PVC) in decompensated liver cirrhosis (DLC) patients.Patients with DLC at our institution between April 2012 and March 2013 were enrolled after obtaining informed consent. The patients were randomly allocated into 2 groups: the NS group received preservative-free 0.9% sodium chloride as the flushing and locking solution, while the HS group received HS (50 U/mL). PVC-related events and the duration of PVC maintenance were compared between the 2 groups. Moreover, the preinfusion and postinfusion levels of prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and platelet (PLT) were also compared.A total of 32 and 36 DLC patients in the NS (125 PVCs) and HS (65 PVCs) groups, respectively, were analyzed. Baseline characteristics, including gender, age, Child-Pugh grade, PVC type and administration of anticoagulant, and irritant agents, were comparable between the 2 groups (P > 0.05). The maintenance times of the HS and NS groups were 80.27 ± 26.47 and 84.19 ± 29.32 hours, respectively (P = 0.397). Removal of PVC for abnormal reasons occurred in 30.7% and 22.4% of patients in the HS and NS groups (P = 0.208). The PVC occlusion rates were 6.2% and 5.6% in the HS and NS groups, respectively (OR = 1.11, 95% CI 0.31-3.92). The PT, APTT, and PLT levels were comparable between the 2 groups both before and after infusion (P > 0.05). Incremental analyses showed that Child-Pugh grade C might be a risk factor for the suppression of PLT in the HS group.We consider NS to be as effective as and safer than conventional HS for flushing and locking PVC in decompensated liver cirrhosis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Wang
- From the Department of Gastroenterology (RW, OL, LH, MZ, LT, Z-XZ, M-GZ, HW); Infusion Nursing IV Team, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China (RW, Y-LL); Faculty of Medicine, West China School of Medicine (Y-JT); Department of Hepatic Surgery (Y-LL); Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China (X-ZC)
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Milutinović D, Simin D, Zec D. Risk factor for phlebitis: a questionnaire study of nurses' perception. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem 2015; 23:677-84. [PMID: 26444170 PMCID: PMC4623731 DOI: 10.1590/0104-1169.0192.2603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES to assess nurses' perceptions of risk factors for the development of phlebitis, with a special focus on the perception of phlebitic potentials of some infusion medications and solutions. METHOD a cross-sectional questionnaire study, which included a sample of 102 nurses. RESULTS Nurses recognized some factors that may reduce the incidence of phlebitis; however, more than half of the nurses were unaware that the material and diameter of the cannula can affect the incidence rate of phlebitis. Furthermore,underlying disease and high pH of medications or solutions were identified as potential risk factors, whereas low pH and low osmolality were not. Nurses identified Vancomycin and Benzylpenicillin antibiotics with the strongest phlebitic potential. Among other medications and intravenous fluids, Aminophylline, Amiodaronehydrochloride and Potassium chloride 7.4% were identified as potentially causing phlebitis. CONCLUSION predisposing factors for phlebitis relating to patients and administered therapy were identified by nurses, while some cannula related risk factors, in particular its physicochemical properties and the time for cannula replacement, were not fully perceived.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragana Milutinović
- PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Dragana Simin
- Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Davor Zec
- Master's student, Faculty of Medicine, University of Josip Juraj
Strossmayer, Croatia. RN, Medical Critical Care Unit, Department for Internal Disease,
Clinical Hospital Centre of Osijek, Croatia
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21
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Goossens GA. Flushing and Locking of Venous Catheters: Available Evidence and Evidence Deficit. Nurs Res Pract 2015; 2015:985686. [PMID: 26075094 PMCID: PMC4446496 DOI: 10.1155/2015/985686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Flushing and locking of intravenous catheters are thought to be essential in the prevention of occlusion. The clinical sign of an occlusion is catheter malfunction and flushing is strongly recommended to ensure a well-functioning catheter. Therefore fluid dynamics, flushing techniques, and sufficient flushing volumes are important matters in adequate flushing in all catheter types. If a catheter is not in use, it is locked. For years, it has been thought that the catheter has to be filled with an anticoagulant to prevent catheter occlusion. Heparin has played a key role in locking venous catheters. However, the high number of risks associated with heparin forces us to look for alternatives. A long time ago, 0.9% sodium chloride was already introduced as locking solution in peripheral cannulas. More recently, a 0.9% sodium chloride lock has also been investigated in other types of catheters. Thrombolytic agents have also been studied as a locking solution because their antithrombotic effect was suggested as superior to heparin. Other catheter lock solutions focus on the anti-infective properties of the locks such as antibiotics and chelating agents. Still, the most effective locking solution will depend on the catheter type and the patient's condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godelieve Alice Goossens
- Nursing Centre of Excellence, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Heparin for prolonging peripheral intravenous catheter use in neonates: a randomized controlled trial. J Perinatol 2015; 35:274-7. [PMID: 25474552 DOI: 10.1038/jp.2014.203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the efficacy of heparinized saline administered as intermittent flush on functional duration of the peripheral intravenous catheter (PIVC) in neonates. STUDY DESIGN Randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. SETTING Neonatal intensive care unit of a teaching hospital. PARTICIPANTS Term and preterm neonates born at >32 weeks of gestation who required PIVC only for intermittent administration of antibiotics. INTERVENTION Eligible neonates were randomized to receive 1 ml of either heparinized saline (10 U ml(-1)) (n=60) or normal saline (n=60) every 12 h before and after intravenous antibiotics. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Functional duration of first peripheral intravenous catheter. RESULT A total of 120 neonates were randomized to two groups of 60 neonates each. The mean (s.d.) of age of babies in case and control group was 5.7 (2.5) days and 4.6 (3.1) days, respectively. The average weight of babies in both the groups was 2.1 kg. Mean functional duration of first catheter was more in heparinized saline group, mean (s.d.) of 71.68 h (27.3) as compared with 57.7 h (23.6) in normal saline group (P<0.005). The mean (95% confidence interval) difference in functional duration in the two groups was 13.9 h (4.7-23.15). Mean duration of patency for any catheter was also significantly more in heparinized saline group than control group. CONCLUSION Heparinized saline flush increases the functional duration of peripheral intravenous catheter.
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Akintola AA, Jansen SW, Wilde RBP, Hultzer G, Rodenburg R, van Heemst D. A simple and versatile method for frequent 24 h blood sample collection in healthy older adults. MethodsX 2014; 2:33-8. [PMID: 26150969 PMCID: PMC4487324 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated 24 h blood sampling, which is required for time series analyses of metabolites and/or hormones that show strong fluctuations in blood concentration over time, has a higher failure rate in older adults. We tailored existing venipuncture protocols toward use for 24 h blood sampling (sampling frequency of 10 min) in older adults. The following modifications were made: •Pre-sampling: evidence based risk assessment of older adults.•During sampling:•Ultrasound-guided identification and characterisation of veins.•Use of 20-gauge arterial catheter with guide wire for venous access.•Measures to prevent and/or reduce unidirectional blood flow (fluid flow into but not out of the vein) included:•Use of hot water bottles to dilate veins.•Use of small gauge syringes, shortening of the extension line, and slowing of the blood withdrawal rate to reduce pressure on veins.•Stimulation of movement of the arm or retraction of the IV cannula to relieve mechanical flow obstruction.•Post-sampling: prevention of bruising and prolonged bleeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Akintola
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - S W Jansen
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R B P Wilde
- Intensive Care Department, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - G Hultzer
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R Rodenburg
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - D van Heemst
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
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López-Briz E, Ruiz Garcia V, Cabello JB, Bort-Marti S, Carbonell Sanchis R, Burls A. Heparin versus 0.9% sodium chloride intermittent flushing for prevention of occlusion in central venous catheters in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014:CD008462. [PMID: 25300172 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd008462.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heparin intermittent flushing is a standard practice in the maintenance of patency in central venous catheters. However, we could find no systematic review examining its effectiveness and safety. OBJECTIVES To assess the effectiveness of intermittent flushing with heparin versus 0.9% sodium chloride (normal saline) solution in adults with central venous catheters in terms of prevention of occlusion and overall benefits versus harms. SEARCH METHODS The Cochrane Peripheral Vascular Diseases Group Trials Search Co-ordinator searched the Specialised Register (last searched December 2013) and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (2013, Issue 11). Searches were also carried out in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and clinical trials databases (December 2013). SELECTION CRITERIA Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in adults 18 years of age and older with a central venous catheter (CVC) in which intermittent flushing with heparin (any dose with or without other drugs) was compared with 0.9% normal saline were included. No restriction on language was applied. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors independently selected trials, assessed trial quality and extracted data. Trial authors were contacted to retrieve additional information, when necessary. MAIN RESULTS Six eligible studies with a total of 1433 participants were included. The heparin concentrations used in these studies were very different (10-5000 IU/mL), and follow-up varied from 20 days to 180 days. The overall risk of bias in the studies was low. The quality of the evidence ranged from very low to moderate for the main outcomes (occlusion of CVC, duration of catheter patency, CVC-related sepsis, mortality and haemorrhage at any site).Combined findings from three trials in which the unit of analysis was the catheter suggest that heparin was associated with reduced CVC occlusion rates (risk ratio (RR) 0.53, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.29 to 0.94). However, no clear evidence of a similar effect was found when the results of two studies in which the unit of analysis was the participant were combined (RR 0.21, 95% CI 0.03 to 1.70), nor when findings were derived from one study, which considered total line accesses (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.40). Furthermore, results for other estimated effects were found to be imprecise and compatible with benefit and harm: catheter duration in days (mean difference (MD) 0.41, 95% CI -1.29 to 2.12), CVC-related thrombosis (RR 1.22, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.99), CVC-related sepsis (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.34 to 3.03), mortality (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.45 to 1.32) and haemorrhage at any site (RR 1.37, 95% CI 0.49 to 3.85). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS We found no conclusive evidence of important differences when heparin intermittent flushing was compared with 0.9% normal saline flushing for central venous catheter maintenance in terms of efficacy or safety. As heparin is more expensive than normal saline, our findings challenge its continued use in CVC flushing outside the context of clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo López-Briz
- Department of Pharmacy & CASP Spain, Hospital Universitario y Politécnico La Fe, Bulevar Sur s/n, Valencia, Valencia, Spain, 46026
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Ray-Barruel G, Polit DF, Murfield JE, Rickard CM. Infusion phlebitis assessment measures: a systematic review. J Eval Clin Pract 2014; 20:191-202. [PMID: 24401116 PMCID: PMC4237185 DOI: 10.1111/jep.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Phlebitis is a common and painful complication of peripheral intravenous cannulation. The aim of this review was to identify the measures used in infusion phlebitis assessment and evaluate evidence regarding their reliability, validity, responsiveness and feasibility. METHOD We conducted a systematic literature review of the Cochrane library, Ovid MEDLINE and EBSCO CINAHL until September 2013. All English-language studies (randomized controlled trials, prospective cohort and cross-sectional) that used an infusion phlebitis scale were retrieved and analysed to determine which symptoms were included in each scale and how these were measured. We evaluated studies that reported testing the psychometric properties of phlebitis assessment scales using the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) guidelines. RESULTS Infusion phlebitis was the primary outcome measure in 233 studies. Fifty-three (23%) of these provided no actual definition of phlebitis. Of the 180 studies that reported measuring phlebitis incidence and/or severity, 101 (56%) used a scale and 79 (44%) used a definition alone. We identified 71 different phlebitis assessment scales. Three scales had undergone some psychometric analyses, but no scale had been rigorously tested. CONCLUSION Many phlebitis scales exist, but none has been thoroughly validated for use in clinical practice. A lack of consensus on phlebitis measures has likely contributed to disparities in reported phlebitis incidence, precluding meaningful comparison of phlebitis rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian Ray-Barruel
- NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence in Nursing, Centre for Health Practice Innovation, Griffith Health Institute, Griffith UniversityBrisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Denise F Polit
- NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence in Nursing, Centre for Health Practice Innovation, Griffith Health Institute, Griffith UniversityBrisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jenny E Murfield
- NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence in Nursing, Centre for Health Practice Innovation, Griffith Health Institute, Griffith UniversityBrisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Claire M Rickard
- NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence in Nursing, Centre for Health Practice Innovation, Griffith Health Institute, Griffith UniversityBrisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Loveday HP, Wilson JA, Pratt RJ, Golsorkhi M, Tingle A, Bak A, Browne J, Prieto J, Wilcox M, UK Department of Health. epic3: national evidence-based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections in NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect 2014; 86 Suppl 1:S1-70. [PMID: 24330862 PMCID: PMC7114876 DOI: 10.1016/s0195-6701(13)60012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 670] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
National evidence-based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections (HCAI) in National Health Service (NHS) hospitals in England were originally commissioned by the Department of Health and developed during 1998-2000 by a nurse-led multi-professional team of researchers and specialist clinicians. Following extensive consultation, they were first published in January 2001(1) and updated in 2007.(2) A cardinal feature of evidence-based guidelines is that they are subject to timely review in order that new research evidence and technological advances can be identified, appraised and, if shown to be effective for the prevention of HCAI, incorporated into amended guidelines. Periodically updating the evidence base and guideline recommendations is essential in order to maintain their validity and authority. The Department of Health commissioned a review of new evidence and we have updated the evidence base for making infection prevention and control recommendations. A critical assessment of the updated evidence indicated that the epic2 guidelines published in 2007 remain robust, relevant and appropriate, but some guideline recommendations required adjustments to enhance clarity and a number of new recommendations were required. These have been clearly identified in the text. In addition, the synopses of evidence underpinning the guideline recommendations have been updated. These guidelines (epic3) provide comprehensive recommendations for preventing HCAI in hospital and other acute care settings based on the best currently available evidence. National evidence-based guidelines are broad principles of best practice that need to be integrated into local practice guidelines and audited to reduce variation in practice and maintain patient safety. Clinically effective infection prevention and control practice is an essential feature of patient protection. By incorporating these guidelines into routine daily clinical practice, patient safety can be enhanced and the risk of patients acquiring an infection during episodes of health care in NHS hospitals in England can be minimised.
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Affiliation(s)
- H P Loveday
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London).
| | - J A Wilson
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London)
| | - R J Pratt
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London)
| | - M Golsorkhi
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London)
| | - A Tingle
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London)
| | - A Bak
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London)
| | - J Browne
- Richard Wells Research Centre, College of Nursing, Midwifery and Healthcare, University of West London (London)
| | - J Prieto
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southampton (Southampton)
| | - M Wilcox
- Microbiology and Infection Control, Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds (Leeds)
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