1
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Should Virus Capsids Assemble Perfectly? Theory and Observation of Defects. Biophys J 2020; 119:1781-1790. [PMID: 33113349 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2020.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Although published structural models of viral capsids generally exhibit a high degree of regularity or symmetry, structural defects might be expected because of the fluctuating environment in which capsids assemble and the requirement of some capsids for disassembly before genome delivery. Defective structures are observed in computer simulations, and are evident in single-particle cryoelectron microscopy studies. Here, we quantify the conditions under which defects might be expected, using a statistical mechanics model allowing for ideal, defective, and vacant sites. The model displays a threshold in affinity parameters below which there is an appreciable population of defective capsids. Even when defective sites are not allowed, there is generally some population of vacancies. Analysis of single particles in cryoelectron microscopy micrographs yields a confirmatory ≳15% of defective particles. Our findings suggest structural heterogeneity in virus capsids may be under-appreciated, and also points to a nontraditional strategy for assembly inhibition.
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2
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Sun L, Huang T, Dick A, Meuser ME, Zalloum WA, Chen CH, Ding X, Gao P, Cocklin S, Lee KH, Zhan P, Liu X. Design, synthesis and structure-activity relationships of 4-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole phenylalanine derivatives as novel HIV-1 capsid inhibitors with promising antiviral activities. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 190:112085. [PMID: 32066010 PMCID: PMC7053825 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
HIV-1 CA is involved in different stages of the viral replication cycle, performing essential roles in both early (uncoating, reverse transcription, nuclear import, integration) and late events (assembly). Recent efforts have demonstrated HIV-1 CA protein as a prospective therapeutic target for the development of new antivirals. The most extensively studied CA inhibitor, PF-3450074 (PF-74, discovered by Pfizer), that targets an inter-protomer pocket within the CA hexamer. Herein we reported the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a series of 4-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole phenylalanine derivatives as HIV-1 CA inhibitors based on PF-74 scaffold. Most of the analogues demonstrated potent antiviral activities, among them, the anti-HIV-1 activity of 6a-9 (EC50 = 3.13 μM) is particularly prominent. The SPR binding assay of selected compounds (6a-9, 6a-10, 5b) suggested direct and effective interaction with recombinant CA proteins. The mechanism of action studies also demonstrated that 6a-9 displays the effects in both the early and late stages of HIV-1 replication. To explore the potential binding mode of the here presented analogues, 6a-9 was analyzed by MD simulation to predict its binding to the active site of HIV-1 CA monomer. In conclusion, this novel series of antivirals can serve as a starting point for the development of a new generation of HIV-1 treatment regimen and highlights the potentiality of CA as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Tianguang Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Alexej Dick
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Megan E Meuser
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Waleed A Zalloum
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Science, American University of Madaba, P.O Box 2882, Amman, 11821, Jordan
| | - Chin-Ho Chen
- Duke University Medical Center, Box 2926, Surgical Oncology Research Facility, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Xiao Ding
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Ping Gao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Simon Cocklin
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Kuo-Hsiung Lee
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China.
| | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012, Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China.
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3
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Che Nordin MA, Teow SY. Review of Current Cell-Penetrating Antibody Developments for HIV-1 Therapy. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23020335. [PMID: 29415435 PMCID: PMC6017373 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23020335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1996 has significantly reduced the global mortality and morbidity caused by the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, the therapeutic strategy of HAART that targets multiple viral proteins may render off-target toxicity and more importantly results in drug-resistant escape mutants. These have been the main challenges for HAART and refinement of this therapeutic strategy is urgently needed. Antibody-mediated treatments are emerging therapeutic modalities for various diseases. Most therapeutic antibodies have been approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mainly for targeting cancers. Previous studies have also demonstrated the promising effect of therapeutic antibodies against HIV-1, but there are several limitations in this therapy, particularly when the viral targets are intracellular proteins. The conventional antibodies do not cross the cell membrane, hence, the pathogenic intracellular proteins cannot be targeted with this classical therapeutic approach. Over the years, the advancement of antibody engineering has permitted the therapeutic antibodies to comprehensively target both extra- and intra-cellular proteins in various infections and diseases. This review aims to update on the current progress in the development of antibody-based treatment against intracellular targets in HIV-1 infection. We also attempt to highlight the challenges and limitations in the development of antibody-based therapeutic modalities against HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhamad Alif Che Nordin
- Kulliyyah of Medicine and Health Sciences (KMHS), Kolej Universiti INSANIAH, 09300 Kuala Ketil, Kedah, Malaysia.
| | - Sin-Yeang Teow
- Sunway Institute for Healthcare Development (SIHD), School of Healthcare and Medical Sciences (SHMS), Sunway University, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
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4
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Sepúlveda-Crespo D, Ceña-Díez R, Jiménez JL, Ángeles Muñoz-Fernández M. Mechanistic Studies of Viral Entry: An Overview of Dendrimer-Based Microbicides As Entry Inhibitors Against Both HIV and HSV-2 Overlapped Infections. Med Res Rev 2016; 37:149-179. [PMID: 27518199 DOI: 10.1002/med.21405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of the development of different dendrimers, mainly polyanionic, against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and genital herpes (HSV-2) as topical microbicides targeting the viral entry process. Vaginal topical microbicides to prevent sexually transmitted infections such as HIV and HSV-2 are urgently needed. To inhibit HIV/HSV-2 entry processes, new preventive targets have been established to maximize the current therapies against wild-type and drug-resistant viruses. The entry of HIV/HSV-2 into target cells is a multistep process that triggers a cascade of molecular interactions between viral envelope proteins and cell surface receptors. Polyanionic dendrimers are highly branched nanocompounds with potent activity against HIV/HSV-2. Inhibitors of each entry step have been identified with regard to generations and surface groups, and possible roles for these agents in anti-HIV/HSV-2 therapies have also been discussed. Four potential binding sites for impeding HIV infection (HSPG, DC-SIGN, GSL, and CD4/gp120 inhibitors) and HSV-2 infection (HS, gB, gD, and gH/gL inhibitors) exist according to their mechanisms of action and structures. This review clarifies that inhibition of HIV/HSV-2 entry continues to be a promising target for drug development because nanotechnology can transform the field of HIV/HSV-2 prevention by improving the efficacy of the currently available antiviral treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sepúlveda-Crespo
- Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Spanish HIV-HGM BioBank, Madrid, Spain.,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Ceña-Díez
- Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Spanish HIV-HGM BioBank, Madrid, Spain.,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - José Luis Jiménez
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Spanish HIV-HGM BioBank, Madrid, Spain.,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain.,Plataforma de Laboratorio, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ma Ángeles Muñoz-Fernández
- Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Spanish HIV-HGM BioBank, Madrid, Spain.,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
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5
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Sepúlveda-Crespo D, Gómez R, De La Mata FJ, Jiménez JL, Muñoz-Fernández MÁ. Polyanionic carbosilane dendrimer-conjugated antiviral drugs as efficient microbicides: Recent trends and developments in HIV treatment/therapy. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2015; 11:1481-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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6
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Al-Mawsawi LQ, Wu NC, Olson CA, Shi VC, Qi H, Zheng X, Wu TT, Sun R. High-throughput profiling of point mutations across the HIV-1 genome. Retrovirology 2014; 11:124. [PMID: 25522661 PMCID: PMC4300175 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-014-0124-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The HIV-1 pandemic is not the result of a static pathogen but a large genetically diverse and dynamic viral population. The virus is characterized by a highly mutable genome rendering efforts to design a universal vaccine a significant challenge and drives the emergence of drug resistant variants upon antiviral pressure. Gaining a comprehensive understanding of the mutational tolerance of each HIV-1 genomic position is therefore of critical importance. Results Here we combine high-density mutagenesis with the power of next-generation sequencing to gauge the replication capacity and therefore mutational tolerability of single point mutations across the entire HIV-1 genome. We were able to achieve the evaluation of point mutational effects on viral replicative capacity for 5,553 individual HIV-1 nucleotide positions – representing 57% of the viral genome. Replicative capacity was assessed at 3,943 nucleotide positions for a single alternate base change, 1,459 nucleotide positions for two alternate base changes, and 151 nucleotide positions for all three possible alternate base changes. This resulted in the study of how a total of 7,314 individual point mutations impact HIV-1 replication on a single experimental platform. We further utilize the dataset for a focused structural analysis on a capsid inhibitor binding pocket. Conclusion The approach presented here can be applied to any pathogen that can be genetically manipulated in a laboratory setting. Furthermore, the methodology can be utilized under externally applied selection conditions, such as drug or immune pressure, to identify genetic elements that contribute to drug or host interactions, and therefore mutational routes of pathogen resistance and escape. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12977-014-0124-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laith Q Al-Mawsawi
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA. .,AIDS Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Nicholas C Wu
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA. .,Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - C Anders Olson
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Vivian Cai Shi
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Hangfei Qi
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Xiaojuan Zheng
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Ting-Ting Wu
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Ren Sun
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA. .,AIDS Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA. .,Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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7
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Sousa-Herves A, Novoa-Carballal R, Riguera R, Fernandez-Megia E. GATG dendrimers and PEGylated block copolymers: from synthesis to bioapplications. AAPS JOURNAL 2014; 16:948-61. [PMID: 25004824 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-014-9642-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Dendrimers are synthetic macromolecules composed of repetitive layers of branching units that emerge from a central core. They are characterized by a tunable size and precise number of peripheral groups which determine their physicochemical properties and function. Their high multivalency, functional surface, and globular architecture with diameters in the nanometer scale makes them ideal candidates for a wide range of applications. Gallic acid-triethylene glycol (GATG) dendrimers have attracted our attention as a promising platform in the biomedical field because of their high tunability and versatility. The presence of terminal azides in GATG dendrimers and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-dendritic block copolymers allows their efficient functionalization with a variety of ligands of biomedical relevance including anionic and cationic groups, carbohydrates, peptides, or imaging agents. The resulting functionalized dendrimers have found application in drug and gene delivery, as antiviral agents and for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in diagnosis and as tools to study multivalent carbohydrate recognition and dendrimer dynamics. Herein, we present an account on the preparation and recent applications of GATG dendrimers in these fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Sousa-Herves
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CIQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Jenaro de la Fuente s/n, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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8
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Neira JL. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to study virus structure. Subcell Biochem 2013; 68:145-76. [PMID: 23737051 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6552-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a spectroscopic technique based in the absorption of radiofrequency radiation by atomic nuclei in the presence of an external magnetic field. NMR has followed a "bottom-up" approach to solve the structures of isolated domains of viral proteins, including capsid protein subunits. NMR has been instrumental to describe conformational changes in viral proteins and nucleic acids, showing the presence of dynamic equilibria which are thought to be important at different stages of the virus life cycle; in this sense, NMR is also the only technique currently available to describe, in atomic detail, the conformational preferences of natively unfolded viral proteins. NMR has also complemented X-ray crystallography and has been combined with electron microscopy to obtain pseudo-atomic models of entire virus capsids. Finally, the joint use of liquid and solid-state NMR has allowed the identification of conformational changes in intact viral capsids on insertion in host membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L Neira
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, 03202, Elche, Alicante, Spain,
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9
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Abstract
Dendrimers constitute an intriguing class of macromolecules which find applications in a variety of areas including biology. These hyperbranched macromolecules with tailored backbone and surface groups have been extensively investigated as nanocarriers for gene and drug delivery, by molecular encapsulation or covalent conjugation. Dendrimers have provided an excellent platform to develop multivalent and multifunctional nanoconjugates incorporating a variety of functional groups including drugs which are known to be anti-inflammatory agents. Recently, dendrimers have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory properties themselves. This unexpected and intriguing discovery has provided an additional impetus in designing novel active pharmaceutical agents. In this review, we highlight some of the recent developments in the field of dendrimers as nanoscale anti-inflammatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod K. Avti
- Montreal Heart Institute, Canada; École Polytechnique de Montreál, Canada; McGill University, Canada
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10
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Abstract
During the last 30 years, significant progress has been made in the development of novel antiviral drugs, mainly crystallizing in the establishment of potent antiretroviral therapies and the approval of drugs inhibiting hepatitis C virus replication. Although major targets of antiviral intervention involve intracellular processes required for the synthesis of viral proteins and nucleic acids, a number of inhibitors blocking virus assembly, budding, maturation, entry or uncoating act on virions or viral capsids. In this review, we focus on the drug discovery process while presenting the currently used methodologies to identify novel antiviral drugs by using a computer-based approach. We provide examples illustrating structure-based antiviral drug development, specifically neuraminidase inhibitors against influenza virus (e.g. oseltamivir and zanamivir) and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease inhibitors (i.e. the development of darunavir from early peptidomimetic compounds such as saquinavir). A number of drugs in preclinical development acting against picornaviruses, hepatitis B virus and human immunodeficiency virus and their mechanism of action are presented to show how viral capsids can be exploited as targets of antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Menéndez-Arias
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas & Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), c/Nicolás Cabrera 1, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain,
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11
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Tremblay M, Bonneau P, Bousquet Y, DeRoy P, Duan J, Duplessis M, Gagnon A, Garneau M, Goudreau N, Guse I, Hucke O, Kawai SH, Lemke CT, Mason SW, Simoneau B, Surprenant S, Titolo S, Yoakim C. Inhibition of HIV-1 capsid assembly: Optimization of the antiviral potency by site selective modifications at N1, C2 and C16 of a 5-(5-furan-2-yl-pyrazol-1-yl)-1H-benzimidazole scaffold. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:7512-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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12
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Bocanegra R, Rodríguez-Huete A, Fuertes MÁ, del Álamo M, Mateu MG. Molecular recognition in the human immunodeficiency virus capsid and antiviral design. Virus Res 2012; 169:388-410. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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13
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Castellanos M, Pérez R, Carrillo PJP, de Pablo PJ, Mateu MG. Mechanical disassembly of single virus particles reveals kinetic intermediates predicted by theory. Biophys J 2012; 102:2615-24. [PMID: 22713577 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2012.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
New experimental approaches are required to detect the elusive transient intermediates predicted by simulations of virus assembly or disassembly. Here, an atomic force microscope (AFM) was used to mechanically induce partial disassembly of single icosahedral T=1 capsids and virions of the minute virus of mice. The kinetic intermediates formed were imaged by AFM. The results revealed that induced disassembly of single minute-virus-of-mice particles is frequently initiated by loss of one of the 20 equivalent capsomers (trimers of capsid protein subunits) leading to a stable, nearly complete particle that does not readily lose further capsomers. With lower frequency, a fairly stable, three-fourths-complete capsid lacking one pentamer of capsomers and a free, stable pentamer were obtained. The intermediates most frequently identified (capsids missing one capsomer, capsids missing one pentamer of capsomers, and free pentamers of capsomers) had been predicted in theoretical studies of reversible capsid assembly based on thermodynamic-kinetic models, molecular dynamics, or oligomerization energies. We conclude that mechanical manipulation and imaging of simple virus particles by AFM can be used to experimentally identify kinetic intermediates predicted by simulations of assembly or disassembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milagros Castellanos
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Departamento de Física de la Materia Condensada C-III, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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14
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Mohammadi H, Bienzle D. Pharmacological inhibition of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). Viruses 2012; 4:708-24. [PMID: 22754645 PMCID: PMC3386625 DOI: 10.3390/v4050708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Revised: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a member of the retroviridae family of viruses and causes an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in domestic and non-domestic cats worldwide. Genome organization of FIV and clinical characteristics of the disease caused by the virus are similar to those of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Both viruses infect T lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages, and their replication cycle in infected cells is analogous. Due to marked similarity in genomic organization, virus structure, virus replication and disease pathogenesis of FIV and HIV, infection of cats with FIV is a useful tool to study and develop novel drugs and vaccines for HIV. Anti-retroviral drugs studied extensively in HIV infection have targeted different steps of the virus replication cycle: (1) inhibition of virus entry into susceptible cells at the level of attachment to host cell surface receptors and co-receptors; (2) inhibition of fusion of the virus membrane with the cell membrane; (3) blockade of reverse transcription of viral genomic RNA; (4) interruption of nuclear translocation and viral DNA integration into host genomes; (5) prevention of viral transcript processing and nuclear export; and (6) inhibition of virion assembly and maturation. Despite much success of anti-retroviral therapy slowing disease progression in people, similar therapy has not been thoroughly investigated in cats. In this article we review current pharmacological approaches and novel targets for anti-lentiviral therapy, and critically assess potentially suitable applications against FIV infection in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakimeh Mohammadi
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
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15
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Dewan V, Liu T, Chen KM, Qian Z, Xiao Y, Kleiman L, Mahasenan KV, Li C, Matsuo H, Pei D, Musier-Forsyth K. Cyclic peptide inhibitors of HIV-1 capsid-human lysyl-tRNA synthetase interaction. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:761-9. [PMID: 22276994 PMCID: PMC3330833 DOI: 10.1021/cb200450w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) capsid
protein
(CA) plays a critical role in the viral life cycle. The C-terminal
domain (CTD) of CA binds to human lysyl-tRNA synthetase (hLysRS),
and this interaction facilitates packaging of host cell tRNALys,3, which serves as the primer for reverse transcription. Here, we
report the library synthesis, high-throughput screening, and identification
of cyclic peptides (CPs) that bind HIV-1 CA. Scrambling or single-residue
changes of the selected peptide sequences eliminated binding, suggesting
a sequence-specific mode of interaction. Two peptides (CP2 and CP4)
subjected to detailed analysis also inhibited hLysRS/CA interaction in vitro. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mutagenesis
studies revealed that both CPs bind to a site proximal to helix 4
of the CA-CTD, which is the known site of hLysRS interaction. These
results extend the current repertoire of CA-binding molecules to a
new class of peptides targeting a novel site with potential for development
into novel antiviral agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kuan-Ming Chen
- Biochemistry, Molecular
Biology
and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | | | - Yong Xiao
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical
Research and McGill AIDS Centre, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3T 1E2
| | - Lawrence Kleiman
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical
Research and McGill AIDS Centre, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3T 1E2
| | | | | | - Hiroshi Matsuo
- Biochemistry, Molecular
Biology
and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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16
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Shin R, Tzou YM, Krishna NR. Structure of a monomeric mutant of the HIV-1 capsid protein. Biochemistry 2011; 50:9457-67. [PMID: 21995733 DOI: 10.1021/bi2011493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The capsid protein (CA) of HIV-1 plays a significant role in the assembly of the immature virion and is the critical building block of its mature capsid. Thus, there has been significant interest in the CA protein as a target in the design of inhibitors of early and late stage events in the HIV-1 replication cycle. However, because of its inherent flexibility from the interdomain linker and the monomer-dimer equilibrium in solution, the HIV-1 wild-type CA monomer has defied structural determinations by X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Here we report the detailed solution structure of full-length HIV-1 CA using a monomeric mutant that, though noninfective, preserves many of the critical properties of the wild-type protein. The structure shows independently folded N-terminal (NTD) and C-terminal domains (CTD) joined by a flexible linker. The CTD shows some differences from that of the dimeric wild-type CTD structures. This study provides insights into the molecular mechanism of the wild-type CA dimerization critical for capsid assembly. The monomeric mutant allows investigation of interactions of CA with human cellular proteins exploited by HIV-1, directly in solution without the complications associated with the monomer-dimer equilibrium of the wild-type protein. This structure also permits the design of inhibitors directed at a novel target, viz., interdomain flexibility, as well as inhibitors that target multiple interdomain interactions critical for assembly and interactions of CA with host cellular proteins that play significant roles within the replication cycle of HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Shin
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
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Doménech R, Bocanegra R, Velázquez-Campoy A, Neira JL. The isolated major homology region of the HIV capsid protein is mainly unfolded in solution and binds to the intact protein. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1814:1269-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Bocanegra R, Nevot M, Doménech R, López I, Abián O, Rodríguez-Huete A, Cavasotto CN, Velázquez-Campoy A, Gómez J, Martínez MÁ, Neira JL, Mateu MG. Rationally designed interfacial peptides are efficient in vitro inhibitors of HIV-1 capsid assembly with antiviral activity. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23877. [PMID: 21931621 PMCID: PMC3169566 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus capsid assembly constitutes an attractive target for the development of antiviral therapies; a few experimental inhibitors of this process for HIV-1 and other viruses have been identified by screening compounds or by selection from chemical libraries. As a different, novel approach we have undertaken the rational design of peptides that could act as competitive assembly inhibitors by mimicking capsid structural elements involved in intersubunit interfaces. Several discrete interfaces involved in formation of the mature HIV-1 capsid through polymerization of the capsid protein CA were targeted. We had previously designed a peptide, CAC1, that represents CA helix 9 (a major part of the dimerization interface) and binds the CA C-terminal domain in solution. Here we have mapped the binding site of CAC1, and shown that it substantially overlaps with the CA dimerization interface. We have also rationally modified CAC1 to increase its solubility and CA-binding affinity, and designed four additional peptides that represent CA helical segments involved in other CA interfaces. We found that peptides CAC1, its derivative CAC1M, and H8 (representing CA helix 8) were able to efficiently inhibit the in vitro assembly of the mature HIV-1 capsid. Cocktails of several peptides, including CAC1 or CAC1M plus H8 or CAI (a previously discovered inhibitor of CA polymerization), or CAC1M+H8+CAI, also abolished capsid assembly, even when every peptide was used at lower, sub-inhibitory doses. To provide a preliminary proof that these designed capsid assembly inhibitors could eventually serve as lead compounds for development of anti-HIV-1 agents, they were transported into cultured cells using a cell-penetrating peptide, and tested for antiviral activity. Peptide cocktails that drastically inhibited capsid assembly in vitro were also able to efficiently inhibit HIV-1 infection ex vivo. This study validates a novel, entirely rational approach for the design of capsid assembly interfacial inhibitors that show antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Bocanegra
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Nevot
- Fundació IrsiCaixa, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa Doménech
- Centro de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Inmaculada López
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Olga Abián
- Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems, Zaragoza, Spain
- Aragon Health Sciences Institute, CIBERed, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Alicia Rodríguez-Huete
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Claudio N. Cavasotto
- School of Health Information Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Adrián Velázquez-Campoy
- Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems, Zaragoza, Spain
- Fundación ARAID, Diputación General de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Javier Gómez
- Centro de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | | | - José Luis Neira
- Centro de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain
- Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Mauricio G. Mateu
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Doménech R, Bocanegra R, González-Muñiz R, Gómez J, Mateu MG, Neira JL. Larger Helical Populations in Peptides Derived from the Dimerization Helix of the Capsid Protein of HIV-1 Results in Peptide Binding toward Regions Other than the “Hotspot” Interface. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:3252-64. [DOI: 10.1021/bm2007168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Doménech
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche (Alicante), Spain
| | - Rebeca Bocanegra
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Javier Gómez
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche (Alicante), Spain
| | - Mauricio G. Mateu
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco Madrid, Spain
| | - José L. Neira
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche (Alicante), Spain
- Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Zaragoza, Spain
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Rincón V, Bocanegra R, Rodríguez-Huete A, Rivas G, Mateu MG. Effects of macromolecular crowding on the inhibition of virus assembly and virus-cell receptor recognition. Biophys J 2011; 100:738-746. [PMID: 21281589 PMCID: PMC3030154 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2010.12.3714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Revised: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological fluids contain a very high total concentration of macromolecules that leads to volume exclusion by one molecule to another. Theory and experiment have shown that this condition, termed macromolecular crowding, can have significant effects on molecular recognition. However, the influence of molecular crowding on recognition events involving virus particles, and their inhibition by antiviral compounds, is virtually unexplored. Among these processes, capsid self-assembly during viral morphogenesis and capsid-cell receptor recognition during virus entry into cells are receiving increasing attention as targets for the development of new antiviral drugs. In this study, we have analyzed the effect of macromolecular crowding on the inhibition of these two processes by peptides. Macromolecular crowding led to a significant reduction in the inhibitory activity of: 1), a capsid-binding peptide and a small capsid protein domain that interfere with assembly of the human immunodeficiency virus capsid, and 2), a RGD-containing peptide able to block the interaction between foot-and-mouth disease virus and receptor molecules on the host cell membrane (in this case, the effect was dependent on the conditions used). The results, discussed in the light of macromolecular crowding theory, are relevant for a quantitative understanding of molecular recognition processes during virus infection and its inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verónica Rincón
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rebeca Bocanegra
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alicia Rodríguez-Huete
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Germán Rivas
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mauricio G Mateu
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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HIV capsid is a tractable target for small molecule therapeutic intervention. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1001220. [PMID: 21170360 PMCID: PMC3000358 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 226] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Accepted: 11/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite a high current standard of care in antiretroviral therapy for HIV, multidrug-resistant strains continue to emerge, underscoring the need for additional novel mechanism inhibitors that will offer expanded therapeutic options in the clinic. We report a new class of small molecule antiretroviral compounds that directly target HIV-1 capsid (CA) via a novel mechanism of action. The compounds exhibit potent antiviral activity against HIV-1 laboratory strains, clinical isolates, and HIV-2, and inhibit both early and late events in the viral replication cycle. We present mechanistic studies indicating that these early and late activities result from the compound affecting viral uncoating and assembly, respectively. We show that amino acid substitutions in the N-terminal domain of HIV-1 CA are sufficient to confer resistance to this class of compounds, identifying CA as the target in infected cells. A high-resolution co-crystal structure of the compound bound to HIV-1 CA reveals a novel binding pocket in the N-terminal domain of the protein. Our data demonstrate that broad-spectrum antiviral activity can be achieved by targeting this new binding site and reveal HIV CA as a tractable drug target for HIV therapy. Although the current standard of care for Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is high, viral resistance has emerged to every drug currently in the clinic, in some cases rendering the entire class ineffective for patients. A new class of antiretroviral drugs would be effective against strains of HIV-1 that are resistant to any existing drug and would expand the therapeutic options available to patients. Capsid is the primary structural protein of HIV and a critical part of the viral replication cycle, both in the assembly of viral particles and in the infection of host cells. We report a new class of antiretrovirals that targets HIV-1 capsid and demonstrate that it is active at two critical stages in the viral replication cycle. These compounds were consistently effective against a range of clinical strains of HIV-1, from various sub-types, as well as HIV-2. Finally, the compounds bind in a unique pocket on capsid that has not previously been highlighted as a drug binding site. We believe this new class of antiretrovirals can serve as a starting point for the development of a new generation of HIV-1 therapeutics and, more generally, underscores the potential of capsid as a therapeutic target.
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Doménech R, Abian O, Bocanegra R, Correa J, Sousa-Herves A, Riguera R, Mateu MG, Fernandez-Megia E, Velázquez-Campoy A, Neira JL. Dendrimers as Potential Inhibitors of the Dimerization of the Capsid Protein of HIV-1. Biomacromolecules 2010; 11:2069-78. [DOI: 10.1021/bm100432x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Doménech
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Olga Abian
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Rebeca Bocanegra
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Juan Correa
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Ana Sousa-Herves
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Ricardo Riguera
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Mauricio G. Mateu
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Eduardo Fernandez-Megia
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - Adrián Velázquez-Campoy
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
| | - José L. Neira
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Alicante, Spain, Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, I+CS (Aragon Health Sciences Institute), CIBERehd, Zaragoza, Spain, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain, Departamento de Quimica Orgánica, Facultad de Química, and Unidad de RMN de Biomoléculas Asociada al CSIC, Universidad de Santiago de
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Mateu MG. The capsid protein of human immunodeficiency virus: intersubunit interactions during virus assembly. FEBS J 2009; 276:6098-109. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07313.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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