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Sakaguchi Y, Kobayashi K, Takehara M, Nagahama M. Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin requires acid sphingomyelinase for cellular entry. Anaerobe 2023; 82:102753. [PMID: 37308057 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2023.102753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin is considered to be a crucial agent in enterotoxemia in domestic animals. Epsilon-toxin enters host cells via endocytosis and results in the formation of late endosome/lysosome-derived vacuoles. In the present study, we found that acid sphingomyelinase promotes the internalization of epsilon-toxin in MDCK cells. METHODS We measured the extracellular release of acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) by epsilon-toxin. We examined the role of ASMase in epsilon-toxin-induced cytotoxicity using selective inhibitors and knockdown of ASMase. Production of ceramide after toxin treatment was determined by immunofluorescence technique. RESULTS Blocking agents of ASMase and exocytosis of lysosomes inhibited this epsilon-toxin-induced vacuole formation. Lysosomal ASMase was liberated to extracellular space during treatment of the cells with epsilon-toxin in the presence of Ca2+. RNAi-mediated attenuation of ASMase blocked epsilon-toxin-induced vacuolation. Moreover, incubation of MDCK cells with epsilon-toxin led to production of ceramide. The ceramide colocalized with lipid raft-binding cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) in the cell membrane, indicating that conversion of lipid raft associated sphingomyelin to ceramide by ASMase facilitates lesion of MDCK cells and internalization of epsilon-toxin. CONCLUSIONS Based on the present results, ASMase is required for efficient internalization of epsilon-toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiko Sakaguchi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Keiko Kobayashi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masaya Takehara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nagahama
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan.
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Shetty SV, Mazzucco MR, Winokur P, Haigh SV, Rumah KR, Fischetti VA, Vartanian T, Linden JR. Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Binds to and Kills Primary Human Lymphocytes. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:423. [PMID: 37505692 PMCID: PMC10467094 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is the third most lethal bacterial toxin and has been suggested to be an environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis, an immune-mediated disease of the human central nervous system. However, ETX cytotoxicity on primary human cells has not been investigated. In this article, we demonstrate that ETX preferentially binds to and kills human lymphocytes expressing increased levels of the myelin and lymphocyte protein MAL. Using flow cytometry, ETX binding was determined to be time and dose dependent and was highest for CD4+ cells, followed by CD8+ and then CD19+ cells. Similar results were seen with ETX-induced cytotoxicity. To determine if ETX preference for CD4+ cells was related to MAL expression, MAL gene expression was determined by RT-qPCR. CD4+ cells had the highest amount of Mal gene expression followed by CD8+ and CD19+ cells. These data indicate that primary human cells are susceptible to ETX and support the hypothesis that MAL is a main receptor for ETX. Interestingly, ETX bindings to human lymphocytes suggest that ETX may influence immune response in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha V. Shetty
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Michael R. Mazzucco
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Paige Winokur
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuro-Endocrinology Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Sylvia V. Haigh
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
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Huang J, Zhao B, Liu T, Kang L, Li J, Guo Z, Chen M, Gao S, Wang J, Li Y, Wang J, Xin W. Statins as Potential Preventative Treatment of ETX and Multiple Pore-Forming Toxin-Induced Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065414. [PMID: 36982489 PMCID: PMC10048941 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by type B and D strains of Clostridium perfringens, can cause fatal enterotoxaemia in ruminant animals, particularly sheep, cattle, and goats. Previous studies show that the cytotoxicity of ETX is dependent on the integrity of lipid rafts, the maintenance of which is ensured by cholesterol. Zaragozic acid (ZA) is a statin drug that reduces the synthesis of squalene, which is responsible for cholesterol synthesis. In this study, ZA significantly reduced the toxicity of ETX in Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. We show that ZA does not affect the binding of ETX to MDCK cells, but propidium iodide staining (PI) and Western blotting confirmed that ZA significantly disrupts the ability of ETX to form pores or oligomers in MDCK cells. Additionally, ZA decreased the phosphatidylserine exposure on the plasma membrane and increased the Ca2+ influx of the cells. Results of density gradient centrifugation suggest that ZA decreased the number of lipid rafts in MDCK membranes, which probably contributed to the attenuation of pore-formation. Moreover, ZA protected mice against ETX in vivo. All mice pre-treated with ZA for 48 h before exposure to an absolute lethal dose of ETX (6400 ng/kg) survived. In summary, these findings provide an innovative method to prevent ETX intoxication. Considering many pore-forming toxins require lipid rafts, we tested and found ZA also inhibited the toxicity of other toxins such as Clostridium perfringens Net B and β-toxin (CPB) and Staphylococcus aureus α-hemolysin (Hla). We expect ZA can thus be developed as a broad-spectrum medicine for the treatment of multiple toxins. In addition, other statins, such as lovastatin (LO), also reduced the toxicity of ETX. These findings indicate that statin medicines are potential candidates for preventing and treating multiple toxin-induced diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Huang
- Life Science Institute, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Baohua Zhao
- Life Science Institute, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Tingting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Lin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jiaxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Zishuo Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Ming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yanwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jinglin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
- Correspondence: (J.W.); (W.X.)
| | - Wenwen Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China
- Correspondence: (J.W.); (W.X.)
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Lu M, Yuan B, Yan X, Sun Z, Lillehoj HS, Lee Y, Baldwin-Bott C, Li C. Clostridium perfringens-Induced Host-Pathogen Transcriptional Changes in the Small Intestine of Broiler Chickens. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10121607. [PMID: 34959561 PMCID: PMC8705629 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is an important opportunistic pathogen that may result in toxin-mediated diseases involving food poisoning/tissue gangrene in humans and various enterotoxaemia in animal species. It is a main etiological agent for necrotic enteritis (NE), the most financially devastating bacterial disease in broiler chickens, especially if raised under antibiotic-free conditions. Importantly, NE is responsible for losses of six billion US dollars annually in the global poultry industry. To investigate the molecular mechanisms of C. perfringens-induced pathogenesis in the gut and its microbiome mRNA levels in C. perfringens-infected and non-infected hosts, we used RNA sequencing technology to perform transcriptional analysis of both host intestine and microbiome using our NE model. The growth rate was significantly impaired in chickens infected by C. perfringens. In total, 13,473 annotated chicken genes were differentially expressed between these two groups, with ninety-six genes showing statistical significance (|absolute fold changes| > 2.0, adjusted p value < 0.05). Genes involved in energy production, MHC Class I antigen, translation, ribosomal structures, and amino acid, nucleotide and carbohydrate metabolism from infected gut tissues were significantly down-regulated. The upregulated genes were mainly engaged in innate and adaptive immunity, cellular processes, genetic information processing, and organismal systems. Additionally, the transcriptional levels of four crucial foodborne pathogens were significantly elevated in a synergic relationship with pathogenic C. perfringens infection. This study presents the profiling data that would likely be a relevant reference for NE pathogenesis and may provide new insights into the mechanism of host-pathogen interaction in C. perfringens-induced NE infection in broiler chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingmin Lu
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
| | - Baohong Yuan
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
- School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xianghe Yan
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
- Correspondence: (X.Y.); (C.L.)
| | - Zhifeng Sun
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
| | - Hyun S. Lillehoj
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
| | - Youngsub Lee
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
| | - Calder Baldwin-Bott
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
- Eleanor Roosevelt High School, Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA
| | - Charles Li
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (M.L.); (B.Y.); (Z.S.); (H.S.L.); (Y.L.); (C.B.-B.)
- Correspondence: (X.Y.); (C.L.)
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Rubio-Ramos A, Labat-de-Hoz L, Correas I, Alonso MA. The MAL Protein, an Integral Component of Specialized Membranes, in Normal Cells and Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:1065. [PMID: 33946345 PMCID: PMC8145151 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The MAL gene encodes a 17-kDa protein containing four putative transmembrane segments whose expression is restricted to human T cells, polarized epithelial cells and myelin-forming cells. The MAL protein has two unusual biochemical features. First, it has lipid-like properties that qualify it as a member of the group of proteolipid proteins. Second, it partitions selectively into detergent-insoluble membranes, which are known to be enriched in condensed cell membranes, consistent with MAL being distributed in highly ordered membranes in the cell. Since its original description more than thirty years ago, a large body of evidence has accumulated supporting a role of MAL in specialized membranes in all the cell types in which it is expressed. Here, we review the structure, expression and biochemical characteristics of MAL, and discuss the association of MAL with raft membranes and the function of MAL in polarized epithelial cells, T lymphocytes, and myelin-forming cells. The evidence that MAL is a putative receptor of the epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens, the expression of MAL in lymphomas, the hypermethylation of the MAL gene and subsequent loss of MAL expression in carcinomas are also presented. We propose a model of MAL as the organizer of specialized condensed membranes to make them functional, discuss the role of MAL as a tumor suppressor in carcinomas, consider its potential use as a cancer biomarker, and summarize the directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Rubio-Ramos
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
| | - Leticia Labat-de-Hoz
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
| | - Isabel Correas
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Alonso
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
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SV40 Polyomavirus Activates the Ras-MAPK Signaling Pathway for Vacuolization, Cell Death, and Virus Release. Viruses 2020; 12:v12101128. [PMID: 33028008 PMCID: PMC7650553 DOI: 10.3390/v12101128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyomaviruses are a family of small, non-enveloped DNA viruses that can cause severe disease in immunosuppressed individuals. Studies with SV40, a well-studied model polyomavirus, have revealed the role of host proteins in polyomavirus entry and trafficking to the nucleus, in viral transcription and DNA replication, and in cell transformation. In contrast, little is known about host factors or cellular signaling pathways involved in the late steps of productive infection leading to release of progeny polyomaviruses. We previously showed that cytoplasmic vacuolization, a characteristic late cytopathic effect of SV40 infection, depends on the specific interaction between the major viral capsid protein VP1 and its cell surface ganglioside receptor GM1. Here, we show that, late during infection, SV40 activates a signaling cascade in permissive monkey CV-1 cells involving Ras, Rac1, MKK4, and JNK to stimulate SV40-specific cytoplasmic vacuolization and subsequent cell lysis and virus release. Inhibition of individual components of this signaling pathway inhibits vacuolization, lysis, and virus release, even though high-level intracellular virus replication occurs. Identification of this pathway for SV40-induced vacuolization and virus release provides new insights into the late steps of non-enveloped virus infection.
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Díaz JM, Dozois CM, Avelar-González FJ, Hernández-Cuellar E, Pokharel P, de Santiago AS, Guerrero-Barrera AL. The Vacuolating Autotransporter Toxin (Vat) of Escherichia coli Causes Cell Cytoskeleton Changes and Produces Non-lysosomal Vacuole Formation in Bladder Epithelial Cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:299. [PMID: 32670893 PMCID: PMC7332727 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect more than 150 million people, with a cost of over 3.5 billion dollars, each year. Escherichia coli is associated with 70–80% of UTIs. Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) has virulence factors including adhesins, siderophores, and toxins that damage host cells. Vacuolating autotransporter toxin (Vat) is a member of serine protease autotransporter proteins of Enterobacteriaceae (SPATEs) present in some uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) strains. Vat has been identified in 20–36% of UPEC and is present in almost 68% of urosepsis isolates. However, the mechanism of action of Vat on host cells is not well-known. Thus, in this study the effect of Vat in a urothelium model of bladder cells was investigated. Several toxin concentrations were tested for different time periods, resulting in 15–47% of cellular damage as measured by the LDH assay. Vat induced vacuole formation on the urothelium model in a time-dependent manner. Vat treatment showed loss of the intercellular contacts on the bladder cell monolayer, observed by Scanning Electron Microscopy. This was also shown using antibodies against ZO-1 and occludin by immunofluorescence. Additionally, changes in permeability of the epithelial monolayer was demonstrated with a fluorescence-based permeability assay. Cellular damage was also evaluated by the identification of cytoskeletal changes produced by Vat. Thus, after Vat treatment, cells presented F-actin distribution changes and loss of stress fibers in comparison with control cells. Vat also modified tubulin, but it was not found to affect Arp3 distribution. In order to find the nature of the vacuoles generated by Vat, the Lysotracker deep red fluorescent dye for the detection of acidic organelles was used. Cells treated with Vat showed generation of some vacuoles without acidic content. An ex vivo experiment with mouse bladder exposed to Vat demonstrated loss of integrity of the urothelium. In conclusion, Vat induced cellular damage, vacuole formation, and urothelial barrier dysregulation of bladder epithelial cells. Further studies are needed to elucidate the role of these vacuoles induced by Vat and their relationship with the pathogenesis of urinary tract infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Manuel Díaz
- Departamento de Morfología, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes (UAA), Aguascalientes, Mexico
| | - Charles M Dozois
- Institut National de Recherche Scientifique (INRS)-Centre Armand-Fappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, QC, Canada
| | | | | | - Pravil Pokharel
- Institut National de Recherche Scientifique (INRS)-Centre Armand-Fappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, QC, Canada
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Clostridium perfringens Epsilon-Toxin Impairs the Barrier Function in MDCK Cell Monolayers in a Ca 2+-Dependent Manner. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050286. [PMID: 32365779 PMCID: PMC7291203 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon-toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens significantly contributes to the pathogeneses of enterotoxemia in ruminants and multiple sclerosis in humans. Epsilon-toxin forms a heptameric oligomer in the host cell membrane, promoting cell disruption. Here, we investigate the effect of epsilon-toxin on epithelial barrier functions. Epsilon-toxin impairs the barrier integrity of Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells, as demonstrated by decreased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), increased paracellular flux marker permeability, and the decreased cellular localization of junctional proteins, such as occludin, ZO-1, and claudin-1. U73122, an endogenous phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor, inhibited the decrease in TEER and the increase in the permeability of flux marker induced by epsilon-toxin. The application of epsilon-toxin to MDCK cells resulted in the biphasic formation of 1,2-diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3). U73122 blocked the formation of DAG and IP3 induced by the toxin. Epsilon-toxin also specifically activated endogenous PLC-γ1. Epsilon-toxin dose-dependently increased the cytosolic calcium ion concentration ([Ca2+]i). The toxin-induced elevation of [Ca2+]i was inhibited by U73122. Cofilin is a key regulator of actin cytoskeleton turnover and tight-junction (TJ) permeability regulation. Epsilon-toxin caused cofilin dephosphorylation. These results demonstrate that epsilon-toxin induces Ca2+ influx through activating the phosphorylation of PLC-γ1 and then causes TJ opening accompanied by cofilin dephosphorylation.
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Linden JR, Flores C, Schmidt EF, Uzal FA, Michel AO, Valenzuela M, Dobrow S, Vartanian T. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin induces blood brain barrier permeability via caveolae-dependent transcytosis and requires expression of MAL. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008014. [PMID: 31703116 PMCID: PMC6867657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is responsible for causing the economically devastating disease, enterotoxaemia, in livestock. It is well accepted that ETX causes blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, however the mechanisms involved in this process are not well understood. Using in vivo and in vitro methods, we determined that ETX causes BBB permeability in mice by increasing caveolae-dependent transcytosis in brain endothelial cells. When mice are intravenously injected with ETX, robust ETX binding is observed in the microvasculature of the central nervous system (CNS) with limited to no binding observed in the vasculature of peripheral organs, indicating that ETX specifically targets CNS endothelial cells. ETX binding to CNS microvasculature is dependent on MAL expression, as ETX binding to CNS microvasculature of MAL-deficient mice was not detected. ETX treatment also induces extravasation of molecular tracers including 376Da fluorescein salt, 60kDA serum albumin, 70kDa dextran, and 155kDA IgG. Importantly, ETX-induced BBB permeability requires expression of both MAL and caveolin-1, as mice deficient in MAL or caveolin-1 did not exhibit ETX-induced BBB permeability. Examination of primary murine brain endothelial cells revealed an increase in caveolae in ETX-treated cells, resulting in dynamin and lipid raft-dependent vacuolation without cell death. ETX-treatment also results in a rapid loss of EEA1 positive early endosomes and accumulation of large, RAB7-positive late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. Based on these results, we hypothesize that ETX binds to MAL on the apical surface of brain endothelial cells, causing recruitment of caveolin-1, triggering caveolae formation and internalization. Internalized caveolae fuse with early endosomes which traffic to late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. We believe that these multivesicular bodies fuse basally, releasing their contents into the brain parenchyma. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is an extremely lethal bacterial toxin known to cause a devastating disease in livestock animals and may be a possible cause of multiple sclerosis in humans. ETX is well known to cause disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a critical structure necessary for proper brain function. Deterioration of this barrier allows entry of toxic blood-borne material to enter the brain. Although ETX-induced BBB dysfunction is well accepted, how this happens is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that ETX causes BBB permeability by inducing formation of cell-surface invaginations called caveolae in endothelial cells, the cells that line blood vessels. Importantly, only endothelial cells from the brain and other central nervous system organs appear to be a target of ETX, as the toxin only binds to blood vessels in these organs and not blood vessels from other organs. These ETX-induced caveolae fuse with other caveolae and specialized intracellular vesicles called endosomes. We predict that these endosomes engulf blood-borne material during their internalization, allowing material to travel from the blood, through the cell, and into brain tissue. We also show that expression of the protein MAL and caveolin-1 is necessary for ETX-induced BBB permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R. Linden
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Claudia Flores
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Eric F. Schmidt
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, California, United States of America
| | - Adam O. Michel
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Center of Comparative Medicine and Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, The Rockefeller University, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marissa Valenzuela
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Dobrow
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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A Novel Panel of Rabbit Monoclonal Antibodies and Their Diverse Applications Including Inhibition of Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Oligomerization. Antibodies (Basel) 2018; 7:antib7040037. [PMID: 31544887 PMCID: PMC6698963 DOI: 10.3390/antib7040037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The pore-forming epsilon toxin (ETX) produced by Clostridium perfringens is among the most lethal bacterial toxins known. Sensitive antibody-based reagents are needed to detect toxin, distinguish mechanisms of cell death, and prevent ETX toxicity. Using B-cell immuno-panning and cloning techniques, seven ETX-specific monoclonal antibodies were generated from immunized rabbits. ETX specificity and sensitivity were evaluated via western blot, ELISA, immunocytochemistry (ICC), and flow cytometry. ETX-neutralizing function was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. All antibodies recognized both purified ETX and epsilon protoxin via western blot with two capable of detecting the ETX-oligomer complex. Four antibodies detected ETX via ELISA and three detected ETX bound to cells via ICC or flow cytometry. Several antibodies prevented ETX-induced cell death by either preventing ETX binding or by blocking ETX oligomerization. Antibodies that blocked ETX oligomerization inhibited ETX endocytosis and cellular vacuolation. Importantly, one of the oligomerization-blocking antibodies was able to protect against ETX-induced death post-ETX exposure in vitro and in vivo. Here we describe the production of a panel of rabbit monoclonal anti-ETX antibodies and their use in various biological assays. Antibodies possessing differential specificity to ETX in particular conformations will aid in the mechanistic studies of ETX cytotoxicity, while those with ETX-neutralizing function may be useful in preventing ETX-mediated mortality.
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12
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The cytotoxicity of some phenanthroline-based antimicrobial copper(II) and ruthenium(II) complexes. J Inorg Biochem 2018; 180:61-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2017.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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13
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Shubin AV, Demidyuk IV, Komissarov AA, Rafieva LM, Kostrov SV. Cytoplasmic vacuolization in cell death and survival. Oncotarget 2018; 7:55863-55889. [PMID: 27331412 PMCID: PMC5342458 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytoplasmic vacuolization (also called cytoplasmic vacuolation) is a well-known morphological phenomenon observed in mammalian cells after exposure to bacterial or viral pathogens as well as to various natural and artificial low-molecular-weight compounds. Vacuolization often accompanies cell death; however, its role in cell death processes remains unclear. This can be attributed to studying vacuolization at the level of morphology for many years. At the same time, new data on the molecular mechanisms of the vacuole formation and structure have become available. In addition, numerous examples of the association between vacuolization and previously unknown cell death types have been reported. Here, we review these data to make a deeper insight into the role of cytoplasmic vacuolization in cell death and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey V Shubin
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Chemical Carcinogenesis, N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Biologically Active Nanostructures, N.F. Gamaleya Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya V Demidyuk
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexey A Komissarov
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Lola M Rafieva
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey V Kostrov
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
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14
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Gao X, Peng L, Ruan X, Chen X, Ji H, Ma J, Ni H, Jiang S, Guo D. Transcriptome profile analysis reveals cardiotoxicity of maduramicin in primary chicken myocardial cells. Arch Toxicol 2017; 92:1267-1281. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-2113-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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15
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Vacuolation Activity and Intracellular Trafficking of ArtB, the Binding Subunit of an AB5 Toxin Produced by Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00214-17. [PMID: 28533468 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00214-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Various Salmonella enterica serovars, including S. enterica serovar Typhi, encode an AB5 toxin (ArtAB), the A subunit of which is an ADP-ribosyltransferase related to the S1 subunit of pertussis toxin. However, although the A subunit is able to catalyze ADP-ribosylation of host G proteins, a cytotoxic phenotype has yet to be identified for the holotoxin. Here we show that its B subunit pentamer (ArtB) binds to receptors on the surface of Vero (African green monkey kidney) cell, CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cell, U937 (human monocyte) cell, and HBMEC (human brain microvascular endothelial cell) lines. Moreover, ArtB induced marked vacuolation in all cell lines after 4 h of incubation. Further studies in Vero cells showed that vacuolation was inhibited by bafilomycin A1 and was dependent on the clathrin-mediated uptake of ArtB. Vacuolation was also inhibited by treatment of cells with neuraminidase, indicating that sialylated glycans are functional receptors for ArtB. Confocal colocalization studies indicated that after cell binding and internalization, ArtB undergoes retrograde transport via early endosomes, the trans-Golgi network, and the Golgi apparatus, reaching the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) after approximately 2 h. The onset of vacuolation also coincided with gross cytoskeletal reorganization. At later time points, ArtB colocalized with ER-Tracker Red in the vacuolar membrane, implying that vacuolation is a consequence of ER disorganization. Thus, the isolated B subunit of this cryptic AB5 toxin has significant effects on target cells with the potential to contribute directly to pathogenesis independently of the catalytic A subunit.
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16
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Takagishi T, Oda M, Takehara M, Kobayashi K, Nagahama M. Oligomer formation of Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin is induced by activation of neutral sphingomyelinase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2016; 1858:2681-2688. [PMID: 27453200 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2016] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin is responsible for fatal enterotoxemia in ungulates. The toxin forms a heptamer in the lipid rafts of Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells, leading to cell death. Here, we showed that epsilon-toxin requires neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase) activity during oligomerization. METHODS We tested the role of nSMase in the oligomerization of epsilon-toxin using specific inhibitors, knockdown of nSMase, formation of ceramide, and localization of epsilon-toxin and ceramide by immunofluorescence staining. RESULTS Epsilon-toxin induced the production of ceramide is a dose- and time-dependent manner in ACHN cells. GW4869, an inhibitor of nSMase, inhibited ceramide production induced by the toxin. GW4869 and knockdown of nSMase blocked toxin-induced cell death and oligomer formation of epsilon-toxin. Confocal microscopy images showed that the toxin induced ceramide clustering and colocalized with ceramide. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrated that oligomer formation of epsilon-toxin is facilitated by the production of ceramide through activation of nSMase caused by the toxin. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Inhibitors of nSMase may confer protection against infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruhisa Takagishi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masataka Oda
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 2-5274, Gakkocho-dori, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8514, Japan
| | - Masaya Takehara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Keiko Kobayashi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nagahama
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan.
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Nishiyama Y, Ohmichi T, Kazami S, Iwasaki H, Mano K, Nagumo Y, Kudo F, Ichikawa S, Iwabuchi Y, Kanoh N, Eguchi T, Osada H, Usui T. Vicenistatin induces early endosome-derived vacuole formation in mammalian cells. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2016; 80:902-10. [PMID: 27104762 DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2015.1132152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Homotypic fusion of early endosomes is important for efficient protein trafficking and sorting. The key controller of this process is Rab5 which regulates several effectors and PtdInsPs levels, but whose mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we report that vicenistatin, a natural product, enhanced homotypic fusion of early endosomes and induced the formation of large vacuole-like structures in mammalian cells. Unlike YM201636, another early endosome vacuolating compound, vicenistatin did not inhibit PIKfyve activity in vitro but activated Rab5-PAS pathway in cells. Furthermore, vicenistatin increased the membrane surface fluidity of cholesterol-containing liposomes in vitro, and cholesterol deprivation from the plasma membrane stimulated vicenistatin-induced vacuolation in cells. These results suggest that vicenistatin is a novel compound that induces the formation of vacuole-like structures by activating Rab5-PAS pathway and increasing membrane fluidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Nishiyama
- a Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences , University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Tomohiro Ohmichi
- a Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences , University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Sayaka Kazami
- b Chemical Biology Research Group, RIKEN CSRS , Wako, Japan
| | - Hiroki Iwasaki
- a Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences , University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Kousuke Mano
- c Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
| | - Yoko Nagumo
- a Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences , University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Fumitaka Kudo
- d Graduate School of Science and Engineering , Tokyo Institute of Technology , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Sosaku Ichikawa
- e Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences , University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Yoshiharu Iwabuchi
- c Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
| | - Naoki Kanoh
- c Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
| | - Tadashi Eguchi
- d Graduate School of Science and Engineering , Tokyo Institute of Technology , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Osada
- b Chemical Biology Research Group, RIKEN CSRS , Wako, Japan
| | - Takeo Usui
- e Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences , University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
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18
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Gil C, Dorca-Arévalo J, Blasi J. Clostridium Perfringens Epsilon Toxin Binds to Membrane Lipids and Its Cytotoxic Action Depends on Sulfatide. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140321. [PMID: 26452234 PMCID: PMC4599917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) is one of the major lethal toxins produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, being the causal agent of fatal enterotoxemia in animals, mainly sheep and goats. Etx is synthesized as a non-active prototoxin form (proEtx) that becomes active upon proteolytic activation. Etx exhibits a cytotoxic effect through the formation of a pore in the plasma membrane of selected cell targets where Etx specifically binds due to the presence of specific receptors. However, the identity and nature of host receptors of Etx remain a matter of controversy. In the present study, the interactions between Etx and membrane lipids from the synaptosome-enriched fraction from rat brain (P2 fraction) and MDCK cell plasma membrane preparations were analyzed. Our findings show that both Etx and proEtx bind to lipids extracted from lipid rafts from the two different models as assessed by protein-lipid overlay assay. Lipid rafts are membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids. Binding of proEtx to sulfatide, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol (3)-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol (5)-phosphate was detected. Removal of the sulphate groups via sulfatase treatment led to a dramatic decrease in Etx-induced cytotoxicity, but not in proEtx-GFP binding to MDCK cells or a significant shift in oligomer formation, pointing to a role of sulfatide in pore formation in rafts but not in toxin binding to the target cell membrane. These results show for the first time the interaction between Etx and membrane lipids from host tissue and point to a major role for sulfatides in C. perfringens epsilon toxin pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carles Gil
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular and Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain
- * E-mail: (JB); (CG)
| | - Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Universitat de Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Blasi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Universitat de Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail: (JB); (CG)
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19
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Rumah KR, Ma Y, Linden JR, Oo ML, Anrather J, Schaeren-Wiemers N, Alonso MA, Fischetti VA, McClain MS, Vartanian T. The Myelin and Lymphocyte Protein MAL Is Required for Binding and Activity of Clostridium perfringens ε-Toxin. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004896. [PMID: 25993478 PMCID: PMC4439126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin (ETX) is a potent pore-forming toxin responsible for a central nervous system (CNS) disease in ruminant animals with characteristics of blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and white matter injury. ETX has been proposed as a potential causative agent for Multiple Sclerosis (MS), a human disease that begins with BBB breakdown and injury to myelin forming cells of the CNS. The receptor for ETX is unknown. Here we show that both binding of ETX to mammalian cells and cytotoxicity requires the tetraspan proteolipid Myelin and Lymphocyte protein (MAL). While native Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells are resistant to ETX, exogenous expression of MAL in CHO cells confers both ETX binding and susceptibility to ETX-mediated cell death. Cells expressing rat MAL are ~100 times more sensitive to ETX than cells expressing similar levels of human MAL. Insertion of the FLAG sequence into the second extracellular loop of MAL abolishes ETX binding and cytotoxicity. ETX is known to bind specifically and with high affinity to intestinal epithelium, renal tubules, brain endothelial cells and myelin. We identify specific binding of ETX to these structures and additionally show binding to retinal microvasculature and the squamous epithelial cells of the sclera in wild-type mice. In contrast, there is a complete absence of ETX binding to tissues from MAL knockout (MAL-/-) mice. Furthermore, MAL-/- mice exhibit complete resistance to ETX at doses in excess of 1000 times the symptomatic dose for wild-type mice. We conclude that MAL is required for both ETX binding and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Yinghua Ma
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Myat Lin Oo
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Josef Anrather
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Nicole Schaeren-Wiemers
- Neurobiology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Miguel A. Alonso
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Mark S. McClain
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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20
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Manni MM, Sot J, Goñi FM. Interaction of Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin with biological and model membranes: A putative protein receptor in cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1848:797-804. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 11/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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21
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Shubin AV, Demidyuk IV, Lunina NA, Komissarov AA, Roschina MP, Leonova OG, Kostrov SV. Protease 3C of hepatitis A virus induces vacuolization of lysosomal/endosomal organelles and caspase-independent cell death. BMC Cell Biol 2015; 16:4. [PMID: 25886889 PMCID: PMC4355371 DOI: 10.1186/s12860-015-0050-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 3C proteases, the main proteases of picornaviruses, play the key role in viral life cycle by processing polyproteins. In addition, 3C proteases digest certain host cell proteins to suppress antiviral defense, transcription, and translation. The activity of 3C proteases per se induces host cell death, which makes them critical factors of viral cytotoxicity. To date, cytotoxic effects have been studied for several 3C proteases, all of which induce apoptosis. This study for the first time describes the cytotoxic effect of 3C protease of human hepatitis A virus (3Cpro), the only proteolytic enzyme of the virus. RESULTS Individual expression of 3Cpro induced catalytic activity-dependent cell death, which was not abrogated by the pan-caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk) and was not accompanied by phosphatidylserine externalization in contrast to other picornaviral 3C proteases. The cell survival was also not affected by the inhibitors of cysteine proteases (z-FA-fmk) and RIP1 kinase (necrostatin-1), critical enzymes involved in non-apoptotic cell death. A substantial fraction of dying cells demonstrated numerous non-acidic cytoplasmic vacuoles with not previously described features and originating from several types of endosomal/lysosomal organelles. The lysosomal protein Lamp1 and GTPases Rab5, Rab7, Rab9, and Rab11 were associated with the vacuolar membranes. The vacuolization was completely blocked by the vacuolar ATPase inhibitor (bafilomycin A1) and did not depend on the activity of the principal factors of endosomal transport, GTPases Rab5 and Rab7, as well as on autophagy and macropinocytosis. CONCLUSIONS 3Cpro, apart from other picornaviral 3C proteases, induces caspase-independent cell death, accompanying by cytoplasmic vacuolization. 3Cpro-induced vacuoles have unique properties and are formed from several organelle types of the endosomal/lysosomal compartment. The data obtained demonstrate previously undocumented morphological characters of the 3Cpro-induced cell death, which can reflect unknown aspects of the human hepatitis A virus-host cell interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey V Shubin
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
| | - Ilya V Demidyuk
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
| | - Nataliya A Lunina
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
| | - Alexey A Komissarov
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
| | - Marina P Roschina
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
| | - Olga G Leonova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119992, Russia.
| | - Sergey V Kostrov
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
- National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute", Moscow, 123182, Russia.
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Daidoji T, Watanabe Y, Ibrahim MS, Yasugi M, Maruyama H, Masuda T, Arai F, Ohba T, Honda A, Ikuta K, Nakaya T. Avian Influenza Virus Infection of Immortalized Human Respiratory Epithelial Cells Depends upon a Delicate Balance between Hemagglutinin Acid Stability and Endosomal pH. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:10627-42. [PMID: 25673693 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.611327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The highly pathogenic avian influenza (AI) virus, H5N1, is a serious threat to public health worldwide. Both the currently circulating H5N1 and previously circulating AI viruses recognize avian-type receptors; however, only the H5N1 is highly infectious and virulent in humans. The mechanism(s) underlying this difference in infectivity remains unclear. The aim of this study was to clarify the mechanisms responsible for the difference in infectivity between the current and previously circulating strains. Primary human small airway epithelial cells (SAECs) were transformed with the SV40 large T-antigen to establish a series of clones (SAEC-Ts). These clones were then used to test the infectivity of AI strains. Human SAEC-Ts could be broadly categorized into two different types based on their susceptibility (high or low) to the viruses. SAEC-T clones were poorly susceptible to previously circulating AI but were completely susceptible to the currently circulating H5N1. The hemagglutinin (HA) of the current H5N1 virus showed greater membrane fusion activity at higher pH levels than that of previous AI viruses, resulting in broader cell tropism. Moreover, the endosomal pH was lower in high susceptibility SAEC-T clones than that in low susceptibility SAEC-T clones. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that the infectivity of AI viruses, including H5N1, depends upon a delicate balance between the acid sensitivity of the viral HA and the pH within the endosomes of the target cell. Thus, one of the mechanisms underlying H5N1 pathogenesis in humans relies on its ability to fuse efficiently with the endosomes in human airway epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomo Daidoji
- From the Department of Infectious Diseases, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Yohei Watanabe
- the Department of Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Madiha S Ibrahim
- the Department of Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan, the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour 22111, Egypt
| | - Mayo Yasugi
- the Department of Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan, the Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Izumisano, Osaka, 598-8531, Japan
| | - Hisataka Maruyama
- the Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan, and
| | - Taisuke Masuda
- the Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan, and
| | - Fumihito Arai
- the Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan, and
| | - Tomoyuki Ohba
- the Department of Frontier Bioscience, Hosei University, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8584, Japan
| | - Ayae Honda
- the Department of Frontier Bioscience, Hosei University, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8584, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Ikuta
- the Department of Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Takaaki Nakaya
- From the Department of Infectious Diseases, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan,
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23
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Alves GG, Machado de Ávila RA, Chávez-Olórtegui CD, Lobato FCF. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin: the third most potent bacterial toxin known. Anaerobe 2014; 30:102-7. [PMID: 25234332 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) is produced by Clostridium perfringens type B and D strains and causes enterotoxemia, a highly lethal disease with major impacts on the farming of domestic ruminants, particularly sheep. ETX belongs to the aerolysin-like pore-forming toxin family. Although ETX has striking similarities to other toxins in this family, ETX is often more potent, with an LD50 of 100 ng/kg in mice. Due to this high potency, ETX is considered as a potential bioterrorism agent and has been classified as a category B biological agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the United States. The protoxin is converted to an active toxin through proteolytic cleavage performed by specific proteases. ETX is absorbed and acts locally in the intestines then subsequently binds to and causes lesions in other organs, including the kidneys, lungs and brain. The importance of this toxin for veterinary medicine and its possible use as a biological weapon have drawn the attention of researchers and have led to a large number of studies investigating ETX. The aim of the present work is to review the existing knowledge on ETX from C. perfringens type B and D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Guerra Alves
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Antônio Carlos Avenue, 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31.270-901, Brazil.
| | | | - Carlos Delfin Chávez-Olórtegui
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Antônio Carlos Avenue, 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31.270-901, Brazil
| | - Francisco Carlos Faria Lobato
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Antônio Carlos Avenue, 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31.270-901, Brazil.
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Intracellular trafficking of Clostridium botulinum C2 toxin. Toxicon 2014; 82:76-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Abstract
In both humans and animals, Clostridium perfringens is an important cause of histotoxic infections and diseases originating in the intestines, such as enteritis and enterotoxemia. The virulence of this Gram-positive, anaerobic bacterium is heavily dependent upon its prolific toxin-producing ability. Many of the ∼16 toxins produced by C. perfringens are encoded by large plasmids that range in size from ∼45 kb to ∼140 kb. These plasmid-encoded toxins are often closely associated with mobile elements. A C. perfringens strain can carry up to three different toxin plasmids, with a single plasmid carrying up to three distinct toxin genes. Molecular Koch's postulate analyses have established the importance of several plasmid-encoded toxins when C. perfringens disease strains cause enteritis or enterotoxemias. Many toxin plasmids are closely related, suggesting a common evolutionary origin. In particular, most toxin plasmids and some antibiotic resistance plasmids of C. perfringens share an ∼35-kb region containing a Tn916-related conjugation locus named tcp (transfer of clostridial plasmids). This tcp locus can mediate highly efficient conjugative transfer of these toxin or resistance plasmids. For example, conjugative transfer of a toxin plasmid from an infecting strain to C. perfringens normal intestinal flora strains may help to amplify and prolong an infection. Therefore, the presence of toxin genes on conjugative plasmids, particularly in association with insertion sequences that may mobilize these toxin genes, likely provides C. perfringens with considerable virulence plasticity and adaptability when it causes diseases originating in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin: a malevolent molecule for animals and man? Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2138-60. [PMID: 24284826 PMCID: PMC3847718 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5112138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 10/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is a prolific, toxin-producing anaerobe causing multiple diseases in humans and animals. One of these toxins is epsilon, a 33 kDa protein produced by Clostridium perfringens (types B and D) that induces fatal enteric disease of goats, sheep and cattle. Epsilon toxin (Etx) belongs to the aerolysin-like toxin family. It contains three distinct domains, is proteolytically-activated and forms oligomeric pores on cell surfaces via a lipid raft-associated protein(s). Vaccination controls Etx-induced disease in the field. However, therapeutic measures are currently lacking. This review initially introduces C. perfringens toxins, subsequently focusing upon the Etx and its biochemistry, disease characteristics in various animals that include laboratory models (in vitro and in vivo), and finally control mechanisms (vaccines and therapeutics).
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Ferrarezi MC, Curci VCLM, Cardoso TC. Cellular vacuolation and mitochondrial-associated factors induced by Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin detected using acoustic flow cytometry. Anaerobe 2013; 24:55-9. [PMID: 24076036 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D is a potent toxin that is responsible for fatal enterotoxaemia. In vitro, ETX, which is considered as a pore-forming toxin, forms a heptamer in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell membranes, which is considered to be a pre-pore stage. After binding of the ETX, vacuoles inside cell cytoplasm are produced. ETX causes decreased levels of essential coenzymes required for host cell energy. Here, we optimized and applied acoustic flow cytometry analysis in order to gain further insight into ETX-pathogenesis. Using acoustic flow cytometer analysis, which considered highly sensitive, ETX-exposed MDCK cells revealed mitochondrial membrane decreases followed by 25.48% and 45.45% of the exposed cells expressing the Bax and BCL-2 proteins at a pre-pore stage, respectively. These results together with high cytotoxicity and visualization of cell vacuoles, demonstrates that acoustic flow cytometry analysis potentially represents an effective tool to study ETX pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina C Ferrarezi
- University of São Paulo State, Departamento de Apoio, Produção e Saúde Animal, Rua Clóvis Pestana, 793, Araçatuba 16050-680, São Paulo, Brazil
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Oligomerization of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin is dependent upon caveolins 1 and 2. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46866. [PMID: 23056496 PMCID: PMC3462777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence from multiple studies suggests that Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin is a pore-forming toxin, assembling into oligomeric complexes in the plasma membrane of sensitive cells. In a previous study, we used gene-trap mutagenesis to identify mammalian factors contributing to toxin activity, including caveolin-2 (CAV2). In this study, we demonstrate the importance of caveolin-2 and its interaction partner, caveolin-1 (CAV1), in ε-toxin-induced cytotoxicity. Using CAV2-specific shRNA in a toxin-sensitive human kidney cell line, ACHN, we confirmed that cells deficient in CAV2 exhibit increased resistance to ε-toxin. Similarly, using CAV1-specific shRNA, we demonstrate that cells deficient in CAV1 also exhibit increased resistance to the toxin. Immunoprecipitation of CAV1 and CAV2 from ε-toxin-treated ACHN cells demonstrated interaction of both CAV1 and -2 with the toxin. Furthermore, blue-native PAGE indicated that the toxin and caveolins were components of a 670 kDa protein complex. Although ε-toxin binding was only slightly perturbed in caveolin-deficient cells, oligomerization of the toxin was dramatically reduced in both CAV1- and CAV2-deficient cells. These results indicate that CAV1 and -2 potentiate ε-toxin induced cytotoxicity by promoting toxin oligomerization – an event which is requisite for pore formation and, by extension, cell death.
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Abstract
Clostridium perfringens iota-toxin is composed of an enzymatic component (Ia) and a binding component (Ib). Ib binds to a cell surface receptor, undergoes oligomerization in lipid rafts, and binds Ia. The resulting complex is then endocytosed. Here, we show the intracellular trafficking of iota-toxin. After the binding of the Ib monomer with cells at 4°C, oligomers of Ib formed at 37°C and later disappeared. Immunofluorescence staining of Ib revealed that the internalized Ib was transported to early endosomes. Some Ib was returned to the plasma membrane through recycling endosomes, whereas the rest was transported to late endosomes and lysosomes for degradation. Degraded Ib was delivered to the plasma membrane by an increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration caused by Ib. Bafilomycin A1, an endosomal acidification inhibitor, caused the accumulation of Ib in endosomes, and both nocodazole and colchicine, microtubule-disrupting agents, restricted Ib's movement in the cytosol. These results indicated that an internalized Ia and Ib complex was delivered to early endosomes and that subsequent delivery of Ia to the cytoplasm occurs mainly in early endosomes. Ib was either sent back to the plasma membranes through recycling endosomes or transported to late endosomes and lysosomes for degradation. Degraded Ib was transported to plasma membranes.
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