Grandparenting

Parent-Child Relationship Typologies and Associated Health Status Among Older Adults in the United States and China: A Cross-Cultural Comparison

Background and Objectives

Cultural differences in intergenerational relationships have been well established in prior research. However, cross-national comparison evidence on the parent-child relationship and its health implications remains limited.

Research Design and Methods

Data from the 2014 U.S. Health and Retirement Study and the 2015 Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study in China were used (N US, non-Hispanic Whites only = 3,918; N China = 4,058). Relationship indicators included coresidence, living nearby, having weekly contact, receiving assistance with daily activities, providing grandchild care, and financial transfer to/from children. Latent class and regression analyses were conducted.

Results

Four classes were identified for non-Hispanic White older Americans: (1) distant and uninvolved (6.58%), (2) geographically proximate with frequent contact and downward support (47.04%), (3) coresident with frequent contact and upward support (13.1%), and (4) geographically proximate with frequent contact (33.28%). Three classes were identified among older Chinese: (1) coresident with frequent contact and upward support (37.46%), (2) coresident/interdependent (25.65%), and (3) geographically proximate with frequent contact and upward financial support (36.89%). For non-Hispanic White older Americans, providing downward support was associated with fewer functional limitations and better cognition. Receiving instrumental support from children was associated with more depressive symptoms, more functional limitations, and poorer cognition among older Chinese.

Discussion and Implications

Cultural contrasts were evident in parent-child relationship typologies and their health implications. Compared to the U.S. non-Hispanic Whites, parent-child relationships in China tended to be closer and associated with poorer health status. The findings call for culturally relevant strategies to improve parent-child relationships and ultimately promote the health of older adults.

Social connections and participation among people with mild cognitive impairment: barriers and recommendations

Objective

Social connections and participation are essential for individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to prevent the progression of cognitive decline and enhance their overall well-being. However, existing research has primarily focused on environmental barriers, overlooking personal factors and the interconnected nature of these barriers. Moreover, there is a lack of understanding regarding social connections and participation challenges specific to people with MCI in low- and middle-income countries. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the barriers that hinder social connections and participation among people with MCI in China and investigate opportunities to design appropriate supportive interventions.

Methods

Thirty-one people with MCI (13 males and 18 females; mean age = 82.74 years, SD = 7.69; mean MoCA score = 21.26, SD = 2.44) and 13 caregivers were recruited to attend focus groups. In addition, 10 therapists were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. Focus groups and interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using a framework analysis approach.

Results

We found that the ability to build social connections among people with MCI is affected by mobility challenges, intensive grandparenting responsibilities, availability of suitable activities, and feelings of exclusion in a closed-minded community environment. Personal reasons, such as lower social efficacy, inability to find suitable social activities, and intensive family responsibilities, discourage people with MCI from social participation. The digital literacy of people with MCI depends on their motivation to learn and use digital tools; people with MCI who live in a community have a higher digital literacy than those living in care centers. The motivation to achieve digital literacy is affected by perceived benefits, costs of technology use, and social influence.

Conclusion

Multidimensional initiatives are needed to address barriers to social connections, participation, and technology adoption among individuals with MCI. This includes organizing and engaging in social activities, promoting awareness and education on the importance of social participation, and exploring technology-based interventions to improve memory and storytelling abilities. These efforts can create a supportive environment and empower individuals with MCI to participate actively in social interactions, enhancing their overall well-being.

Association between bidirectional intergenerational support and successful aging in China: Evidence from CHARLS 2018

Aging has gradually accelerated in China, and achieving successful aging of older adults has become a public health concern. Intergenerational support is crucial for Chinese older adults in later life due to the culture of filial piety. However, the association between successful aging and intergenerational support remains poorly understood in China. This study aimed to examine the association between patterns of intergenerational support and successful aging of older adults in China. The present study is a secondary analysis of data obtained from the follow-up survey of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study 2018. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and logistic regressions. Bidirectional intergenerational support was associated with successful aging in the participants. In addition, there was an association between different intergenerational financial, caring, and emotional support patterns and elements of successful aging.

Research on grandchild care and depression of chinese older adults based on CHARLS2018: the mediating role of intergenerational support from children

BACKGROUND

There may be differences in gender and marital status in the impact of grandchild care on the depression of the Chinese older adults. This research explores the effect of grandchild care on the depression of Chinese older adults of different genders and marital status, and explores the mediating role of intergenerational support from children between grandchild care and depression.

METHODS

This research uses the data of 3540 Chinese older adults from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) in 2018. The OLS model is used to analyze the effect of grandchild care on the depression of the older adults. and the older adults are classified according to gender and marital status, and the differences in the effect of grandchild care on the depression of the elderly of different genders and marital status is explored. Finally, the bootstrap method is used to test the mediating effect of intergenerational support from children.

RESULTS

The research finds that grandchild care has a significant impact on the depression of the older adults in China, and providing grandchild care can significantly reduce the depression of the older adults. The effect of grandchild care on the depression of the older adults is different between different genders and marital status. After categorizing the older adults by gender, the grandchild care only has a significant impact on the depression of female older adults; after classified by marital status, grandchild care only has a significant impact on the depression of the older adults who don't have a spouse. The mediating effect analysis shows that both children's emotional support and children's economic support have a mediating effect between grandchild care and depression of the older adults.

CONCLUSION

The depression of the Chinese older adults is affected by grandchild care, and this effect is more prominent in female older adults and the older adults who don't have a spouse. The society should support and encourage capable older adults to participate in grandchild care, and children should also provide more intergenerational support to the older adults who provide grandchild care, so as to further play the role of grandchild care in relieving depression of the older adults.

Gender differences in depressive symptoms of rural Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren

BACKGROUND

Caring for grandchildren is regarded as one of the principle roles of middle- and old-aged adults, especially among rural Chinese grandparents. This study aims to examine the gender differences in depressive symptoms of rural Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren, based on the gender differences in grandparental role engagement and the theories of role strain and role enhancement.

METHODS

A total of 4833 rural citizens with one or more grandchildren were selected from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) conducted in 2015. Grandchild care was measured by continuous variable (duration) and categorical variable (no care, low intensity, moderate intensity, high intensity). Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). We used coarsened exact matching (CEM) to balance the covariates of caregivers and non-caregivers. Following CEM, 1975 non-caregivers and 2212 caregivers were identified (N = 4187). Multilevel linear regression was employed to examine the gender differences in depressive symptoms. We also tested for the moderating role of gender on the association between grandchild care and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Grandmothers were more likely to provide grandchild care (54.42% vs 51.43%) at high intensity (61.46% vs 51.01%), with longer duration (39.24 h vs 33.15 h) than that given by grandfathers. Grandmothers suffered more from depressive symptoms than grandfathers, and such gap increased when grandparents were involved in high-intensity care. Grandmothers providing grandchild care, particularly at moderate intensity, were associated with fewer depressive symptoms (Coef. = - 0.087, 95%CI: - 0.163, - 0.010; Coef. = - 0.291, 95%CI: - 0.435, - 0.147), compared with non-caregivers. Grandmothers giving moderate intensity of grandchild care were also associated with fewer depressive symptoms (Coef. = - 0.171, 95% CI: - 0.313, - 0.029), compared with those with low-intensity care. However, such associations were not significant among grandfathers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the gender differences in depressive symptoms of rural Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren. Grandparents should be encouraged to engage in grandchild care, but at moderate intensity. The health status of middle- and old-aged adults, particularly females, should be monitored closely. Humanistic care, preventive care and curative treatment strategies focusing on such populations should be developed and refined.

Grandchild Care and Well-Being: Gender Differences in Mental Health Effects of Caregiving Grandparents

OBJECTIVE

The literature on the gendered differences of mental health as a result of grandchild care has shown mixed results. Research on grandchild care further suggests that nonresidential grandchild care improves mental health outcomes, while residential grandchild care arrangements decrease mental health outcomes in grandparents. The moderating or buffering role of social engagement remains understudied in the grandchild care-mental health relationship. The present study examines mental health effect differences between caregiving grandmothers and grandfathers, and the moderating effects of social engagement.

METHOD

Using 2002-2012 data from the HRS (Health and Retirement Study), a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults aged 50 and over, I examine the mental health effects of grandchild care and the moderating effect of social engagement in fixed effects models.

RESULTS

Grandfathers experience particularly worsened mental health outcomes when providing grandchild care in a skipped-generation household. Both grandmothers and grandfathers experience mental health improvements from increased social engagement. Social engagement, particularly for grandmothers, serves as a buffer or produces role enhancement for grandmothers in skipped-generation care arrangements.

DISCUSSION

Nonresidential and residential grandchild care affect mental health outcomes differently for grandmothers and grandfathers. However, social engagement consistently serves as a buffer or mental health improvement for all grandparents. Findings further encourage the continued study of social engagement and gender differences in older adults more broadly.

What are the social consequences of beginning or ceasing to care for grandchildren? Evidence from an asymmetric fixed effects analysis of community dwelling adults in Germany

Objective: To examine the influence of a change in one's caregiving status, i.e. beginning to provide grandchild care or ceasing to provide grandchild care, on feelings of loneliness and one's social network size.Method: A longitudinal study was conducted, using data drawn from a population-based sample of community-based individuals ≥ 40 years. This data was analyzed using asymmetric fixed effects models (n = 8,678 observations). Perceived loneliness was measured using a short version of the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale. The number of important people with whom respondents have regular contact was used an outcome variable. All respondents were asked whether they privately cared for children that were not their own.Results: Beginning to undertake care of a grandchild was associated with an increase in loneliness scores among men (β = 0.10, p < 0.001). Beginning to undertake care of a grandchild also increased the social network size among male grandparents (β = 0.68, p < 0.001). Ceasing to undertake grandchild care was not found to have an impact on feelings of loneliness or social network size among male, nor female, grandparents.Conclusion: This study identifies a positive association between caring for one's grandchild and one's social network. Men were found to experiences increases in feelings of loneliness, where women did not, suggesting possible divergences and experiences of this role. Grandfathers in particular should receive additional support when commencing the care of a grandchild to mitigate possible feelings of loneliness. This study builds on the growing literature exploring the implications of a grandparents undertaking supplementary care of their grandchildren.

Becoming a Grandparent and Its Effect on Well-Being: The Role of Order of Transitions, Time, and Gender

Objectives

Although the majority of older people are grandparents, little is known on whether and how the transition into grandparenthood affects their well-being. Moreover, evidence on whether the order of the transition, the time since grandchild’s birth, and the sociodemographic characteristics of the offspring modify the grandparental well-being is scarce. Taking into account these factors, our study examines the association between becoming a grandparent and subsequent well-being.

Methods

Our study is based on grandparents aged 50 and older from Waves 4–6 of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. Using longitudinal analyses, we investigate associations between becoming a grandparent and subsequent life satisfaction, positive affect, and depression controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors as well as health and well-being at baseline. Furthermore, we explore the role of modifying factors such as whether the grandchild was first-born, the time since transition, and sociodemographic characteristics of the offspring who became a parent.

Results

Becoming a grandparent has a positive effect on well-being only among women who became grandmothers for the first time and via their daughters. Moreover, this effect is particularly strong in the proximity of the birth of the grandchild. No effects were found among first-time grandfathers. Having an additional grandchild does not affect well-being of grandparents, regardless of the offspring’s characteristics.

Discussion

Transitioning to grandparenthood per se does not affect well-being. More research is needed to further investigate if interpersonal relationships and changes in roles triggered by becoming a grandparent could help promote well-being in later life.

Is there a rejuvenating effect of (grand)childcare? A longitudinal study on German data

OBJECTIVES

Provision of grandchild care has been found to be associated with a youthful subjective age. Yet, previous studies on this topic were cross-sectional and ignored the increasing proportions of older people growing old without the opportunity to become a grandparent. This study investigates the effects of childcare to grandchildren and to other children on subjective age using panel data.

METHODS

We exploit the longitudinal nature of data from the German Ageing Survey (DEAS) to examine the association between grandparental childcare and care to other children with subjective age, using fixed-effects regression analyses on a sample of 50-85 years old individuals (men: N=11,151; n=3,984; women: N=10,687; n=3,746, where N is the number of observations and n is the number of individuals).

RESULTS

The results from cross-sectional analyses show a "rejuvenating effect" of provision of both types of childcare in later life, especially for women. However, longitudinal analyses find very small and statistically insignificant effects.

DISCUSSION

We show for the first time that both grandchild care and childcare outside the grandparent-grandchild relationship are associated with a youthful subjective age for older people. However, these associations are likely due to selection effects, i.e. unobserved characteristics of people that make them more likely to engage in childcare and are also associated with subjective age. Our results warn against causal interpretation of associations found in previous studies, but also open up new research questions on the role played by childcare other than to grandchildren.

Extending understanding of grandchild care on feelings of loneliness and isolation in later life : A literature review

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic presents serious challenges across the world. Among these challenges are the possible negative implications for the mental health and well-being of older persons that ongoing social distancing measures may cause. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, a growing body of literature explored the associations between grandchild caregiving, loneliness and social isolation. We summarize the existing literature on this topic. An association between the provision of grandchild care and reduced feelings of loneliness was found in cross-sectional studies; however, a longitudinal study identified possible gender differences in the impact of grandchild care on feelings of loneliness, with the commencement of grandchild care linked to grandfathers feeling lonelier. At the conclusion of the summary, we highlight the need for further research in this field. Further research is of particular relevance given the drastic changes to the way families and older people interact socially, brought about by the COVID-19 global pandemic.

General health perception, depression and quality of life in geriatric grandmothers providing care for grandchildren

AIM/BACKGROUND

To investigate levels of depression, quality of life, general health perception, and factors affecting these in grandmothers providing care for their grandchildren.

MATERIAL/METHOD

One hundred two family physicians from four cities (Samsun, Amasya, Canakkale, and Izmir) in Turkey investigated 2859 women older than 65 years on their patient lists. Of these, 282 (9.8%) had spent at least 50 h caring for their grandchildren in the previous three months, and these were selected as the study group, while the remaining 2563 (89.6%) were enrolled as the control group. After all participants' demographic variables had been investigated, they completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Self-Function 12 (Mental and physical component score) (SF-12), and the Visual Analog Scale of EQ-5D (VAS). The participants in the study group also completed a questionnaire investigating features of their grandchild care.

RESULTS

The study group (with the exception of custodial grandmothers) scored better on the SF-12 (PSC = 50.60 ± 6.96 vs 48.24 ± 8.12), (MCS = 49.70 ± 7.77 vs 45.48 ± 7.61), VAS (60.44 ± 23.5 vs 54.16 ± 19.5), and BDI (13.97 ± 0.3 vs 19.49 ± 0.2) compared to the control group (p < 0.0001 for all). Age, monthly income, mean length of education, duration of care, mean hours spent caregiving per week, being a custodial grandmother, presence of more than one chronic disease, and caring for more than one grandchild at a time were identified as factors affecting SF-12, VAS and BID in the study group.

CONCLUSION

Grandchild care positively affected the grandmothers' quality of life, depression levels, and general health perception, with the exception of custodial grandmothers.

Grandparent support of mothers caring for a child with a disability: Impacts for maternal mental health

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Mothers who are primary carers of children with disabilities experience more mental health problems than mothers of typically developing children. We aimed to update and extend research into mothers' perceptions of grandparent support with care, and impacts for maternal psychological well-being, because although contemporary grandparents live longer they also work longer.

METHODS

Surveys were completed by 72 mothers of clients (aged ≤8 years) of an Australian non-government disability agency. Mothers reported levels of practical and emotional support, face-to-face contact, and affectional solidarity with maternal and paternal grandparents. The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) was the dependent variable.

RESULTS

Mothers indicated high to very high levels of psychological distress. As in previous comparable surveys, most support was offered by maternal grandmothers who had more contact and closest relationships with mothers. Maternal distress was related to maternal grandmothers' health and relationships with maternal grandfathers. Face-to-face contact and closeness of relationships were strongly linked to provision of support.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Grandparents are important supports for mothers of children with disabilities: mothers lacking support from their own parents are particularly vulnerable. Clinicians should actively facilitate grandparent involvement, and promote extended family relationships.

Grandparenting, education and subjective well-being of older Europeans

We study whether grandparenthood is associated with older people's subjective well-being (SWB), considering the association with life satisfaction of having grandchildren per se, their number, and of the provision of grandchild care. Older people's education may not only be an important confounder to control for, but also a moderator in the relation between grandparenthood-related variables and SWB. We investigate these issues by adopting a cross-country comparative perspective and using data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe covering 20 countries. Our results show that grandparenthood has a stronger positive association with SWB in countries where intensive grandparental childcare is not common and less socially expected. Yet, this result is driven by a negative association between grandparenthood without grandparental childcare and SWB that we only found in countries where intensive grandparental childcare is widespread. Therefore, in accordance with the structural ambivalence theory, we argue that in countries where it is socially expected for grandparents to have a role as providers of childcare, not taking on such a role may negatively influence SWB. However, our results show that grandparental childcare (either intensive or not) is generally associated with higher SWB. Overall, we do not find support for a moderating effect of education. We also do not find striking differences by gender in the association between grandparenthood and SWB. The only noteworthy discrepancy refers to grandmothers being often more satisfied when they provide grandchild care.

The transition to grandparenthood: a prospective study of mental health implications

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the mental health of a cohort of 262 female and 168 male grandparents across the first two years of their transition to grandparenthood, with particular focus on the impact of providing childcare for the grandchild.

METHOD

Baseline assessments were made during the pregnancy with the first grandchild, and subsequent assessments were at one and two years after the birth. The influence of demographic and psychosocial variables which could be expected to influence change in mental health from baseline was explored.

RESULTS

The lack of change in mental health measures in this cohort was more prominent than change. Specifically, there was a small significant decrease in anxiety over the first year for females, and a small significant increase in depression for males. Other variables, not unique to the transition to grandparenthood such as physical health and adverse life events, were strongly associated with changes in mental health. Notably, more time spent babysitting the grandchild was associated with improvement in mental health.

CONCLUSION

The transition to grandparenthood did not have any substantial adverse impact on five well-validated measures of mental health, in contrast to earlier American findings of adverse effects which implied that childcare was burdensome.

A Model for School Professionals Working with Grandparent-Headed Families

Grandparent-headed families have multifaceted needs and complicated family contexts. These nontraditional families frequently have strained relationships with their grandchildren's school systems, but there are scarce models providing effective strategies for working with them. The author used multidisciplinary theoretical literature and research outcomes to propose a model for working with grandparent-headed families in schools. First, unique needs, risk factors, and school barriers these grandparent-headed families experience are put forward. In addition, school professionals' needs for practice guidelines for their work with grandparent-headed families are described. A model for working with grandparent-headed families is proposed, built on four theories: symbolic interactionism, attachment theory, role theory, and the strengths-based approach. Implications for teaching, practice, and programming for grandparent-headed families in schools are presented.

Do Grandchildren Influence How Old You Feel?

Objectives: Guided by the acknowledged importance of measures of aging alternative to chronological age, we explored the association between subjective age, on the one hand, and having grandchildren and provision of grandchild care, on the other, by gender and age groups. Method: Data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; N = 1,701 men and 2,395 women aged 50-85) and linear regression models were used to test two hypotheses. Results: Grandparents feel older than their grandchildless counterparts at younger ages, but such association is reversed in later life if they look after their grandchildren. A cumulative negative association between subjective age and both having grandchildren and providing grandchild care holds for older women. Discussion: This study extends prior research by examining age and gender differences in factors associated with subjective age. The findings suggest that grandparenthood is central in shaping the personal experience of aging. Future studies should address the causality of the factors analyzed.

The experience of grandmothers of children with cancer

OBJECTIVE

to understand, from grandmothers' perspectives, the experience of having a grandchild with cancer.

METHOD

qualitative study, guided by philosophical hermeneutics. Eight grandmothers of children who had finished an oncology treatment participated in this study. Data were collected through interviews, which were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed according to the principles of hermeneutics.

RESULTS

the grandmothers underwent an experience of multiplied, silent, transformative, and permanent suffering. They believe it is their role to be present, but they recognize their adult children's independence and self-determination. Grandmothers highlighted that their experience has been very little accessed and considered by health care professionals.

CONCLUSION

we recommend including grandparents in the context of care and in additional research.

The Impact of Caring for Grandchildren on Grandparents’ Physical Health Outcomes: The Role of Intergenerational Support

Little longitudinal data exist on grandparent caregivers and few studies have examined their physical health outcomes. This study examined the effect of caring for grandchildren on grandparents’ physical health and the role of intergenerational support from adult children. Longitudinal data derived from a survey on the well-being of older adults in China were used to conduct path analysis of previous grandparent caregivers (vs. noncaregivers) and repeated grandparent caregivers (vs. noncaregivers). The final sample was 799 grandparents aged 60 or older living in rural China. Three aspects of intergenerational support were measured: financial, emotional, and instrumental support. Repeated grandparent caregivers had better self-rated health (SRH) and fewer limitations than noncaregivers. Previous grandparent caregivers had better SRH compared to noncaregivers. Emotional support mediated the relationship between caregiving and SRH among repeated caregivers. Findings suggest that any caregiving experience (previous or repeated) provides health benefits to grandparents.