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Wolf S, Gerloff C, Backhaus W. Predictive Value of Upper Extremity Outcome Measures After Stroke-A Systematic Review and Metaregression Analysis. Front Neurol 2021; 12:675255. [PMID: 34177780 PMCID: PMC8222610 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.675255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of motor recovery after stroke requires large-scale, longitudinal trials applying suitable assessments. Currently, there is an abundance of upper limb assessments used to quantify recovery. How well various assessments can describe upper limb function change over 1 year remains uncertain. A uniform and feasible standard would be beneficial to increase future studies' comparability on stroke recovery. This review describes which assessments are common in large-scale, longitudinal stroke trials and how these quantify the change in upper limb function from stroke onset up to 1 year. A systematic search for well-powered stroke studies identified upper limb assessments classifying motor recovery during the initial year after a stroke. A metaregression investigated the association between assessments and motor recovery within 1 year after stroke. Scores from nine common assessments and 4,433 patients were combined and transformed into a standardized recovery score. A mixed-effects model on recovery scores over time confirmed significant differences between assessments (P < 0.001), with improvement following the weeks after stroke present when measuring recovery using the Action Research Arm Test (β = 0.013), Box and Block test (β = 0.011), Fugl–Meyer Assessment (β = 0.007), or grip force test (β = 0.023). A last-observation-carried-forward analysis also highlighted the peg test (β = 0.017) and Rivermead Assessment (β = 0.011) as additional, valuable long-term outcome measures. Recovery patterns and, thus, trial outcomes are dependent on the assessment implemented. Future research should include multiple common assessments and continue data collection for a full year after stroke to facilitate the consensus process on assessments measuring upper limb recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Wolf
- Experimental Electrophysiology and Neuroimaging (xENi), Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Gerloff
- Experimental Electrophysiology and Neuroimaging (xENi), Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Winifried Backhaus
- Experimental Electrophysiology and Neuroimaging (xENi), Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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2
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Johnstone A, Brander F, Kelly K, Bestmann S, Ward N. Differences in outcomes following an intensive upper-limb rehabilitation program for patients with common central nervous system-acting drug prescriptions. Int J Stroke 2021; 17:269-281. [PMID: 33724107 PMCID: PMC8864335 DOI: 10.1177/17474930211006287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background: Difficulty using the upper-limb is a major barrier to
independence for many patients post-stroke or brain injury. High dose rehabilitation can
result in clinically significant improvements in function even years after the incident;
however, there is still high variability in patient responsiveness to such interventions
that cannot be explained by age, sex, or time since stroke. Methods: This
retrospective study investigated whether patients prescribed certain classes of central
nervous system-acting drugs—γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists, antiepileptics, and
antidepressants—differed in their outcomes on the three-week intensive Queen Square
Upper-Limb program. For 277 stroke or brain injury patients (167 male, median age 52 years
(IQR: 21), median time since incident 20 months (IQR: 26)) upper-limb impairment and
activity was assessed at admission to the program and at six months post-discharge, using
the upper limb component of the Fugl-Meyer, Action Research Arm Test, and Chedoke Arm and
Hand Activity Inventory. Drug prescriptions were obtained from primary care physicians at
referral. Specification curve analysis was used to protect against selective reporting
results and add robustness to the conclusions of this retrospective study.
Results: Patients with GABA agonist prescriptions had significantly worse
upper-limb scores at admission but no evidence for a significant difference in
program-induced improvements was found. Additionally, no evidence of significant
differences in patients with or without antiepileptic drug prescriptions on either
admission to, or improvement on, the program was found in this study. Although no evidence
was found for differences in admission scores, patients with antidepressant prescriptions
experienced reduced improvement in upper-limb function, even when accounting for anxiety
and depression scores. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that, when
prescribed typically, there was no evidence that patients prescribed GABA agonists
performed worse on this high-intensity rehabilitation program. Patients prescribed
antidepressants, however, performed poorer than expected on the Queen Square Upper-Limb
rehabilitation program. While the reasons for these differences are unclear, identifying
these patients prior to admission may allow for better accommodation of differences in
their rehabilitation needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainslie Johnstone
- Department for Clinical and Movement Neuroscience, 4919UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Fran Brander
- The 98546National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK.,4919UCLP Centre for Neurorehabilitation, London, UK
| | - Kate Kelly
- The 98546National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK.,4919UCLP Centre for Neurorehabilitation, London, UK
| | - Sven Bestmann
- Department for Clinical and Movement Neuroscience, 4919UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK.,Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, 4919UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Nick Ward
- Department for Clinical and Movement Neuroscience, 4919UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK.,The 98546National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK.,4919UCLP Centre for Neurorehabilitation, London, UK
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3
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Brondani R, de Almeida AG, Cherubini PA, Secchi TL, de Oliveira MA, Martins SCO, Bianchin MM. Risk Factors for Epilepsy After Thrombolysis for Ischemic Stroke: A Cohort Study. Front Neurol 2020; 10:1256. [PMID: 32038448 PMCID: PMC6989601 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of thrombolysis in seizure and epilepsy after acute ischemic stroke have been poorly explored. In this study, we examine risk factors and consequences of intravenous rt-PA for treatment of acute ischemic stroke. In a retrospective cohort study we evaluate risk factors for seizure and epilepsy after stroke thrombolysis, as well as the impact of seizures and epilepsy in outcome of stroke patients. In our cohort, mean age of patients was 67.2 years old (SD = 13.1) and 79 of them (51.6%) were male and. Initial NIHSS mean score were 10.95 (SD = 6.25). Three months NIHSS mean score was 2.09 (SD = 3.55). Eighty seven (56.9%) patients were mRS of 0–1 after thrombolysis. Hemorrhagic transformation was observed in 22 (14.4%) patients. Twenty-one (13.7%) patients had seizures and 15 (9.8%) patients developed epilepsy after thrombolysis. Seizures were independently associated with hemorrhagic transformation (OR = 3.26; 95% CI = 1.08–9.78; p = 0.035) and with mRS ≥ 2 at 3 months after stroke (OR = 3.51; 95% CI = 1.20–10.32; p = 0.022). Hemorrhagic transformation (OR = 3.55; 95% CI = 1.11–11.34; p = 0.033) and mRS ≥ 2 at 3 months (OR = 5.82; 95% CI = 1.45–23.42; p = 0.013) were variables independently associated with post-stroke epilepsy. In our study, independent risks factors for poor outcome in stroke thrombolysis were age (OR = 1.03; 95% CI = 1.01–1.06; p = 0.011), higher NIHSS (OR = 1.08; 95% CI = 1.03–1.14; p = 0.001), hemorrhagic transformation (OR = 2.33; 95% CI = 1.11–4.76; p = 0.024), seizures (OR = 3.07; 95% CI = 1.22–7.75; p = 0.018) and large cortical area (ASPECTS ≤ 7) (OR = 2.04; 95% CI = 1.04–3.84; p = 0.036). Concluding, in this retrospective cohort study, the neurological impairment after thrombolysis (but not before) and hemorrhagic transformation remained independent risk factors for seizures or post-stroke epilepsy after thrombolysis. Moreover, we observed that seizures emerged as an independent risk factor for poor outcome after thrombolysis therapy in stroke patients (OR = 3.07; 95% CI = 1.22–7.75; p = 0.018).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosane Brondani
- Graduate Program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Andrea Garcia de Almeida
- Graduate Program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Pedro Abrahim Cherubini
- Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,CETER-Center for Epilepsy Surgery, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Thaís Leite Secchi
- Graduate Program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,CETER-Center for Epilepsy Surgery, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marina Amaral de Oliveira
- Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Sheila Cristina Ouriques Martins
- Graduate Program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marino Muxfeldt Bianchin
- Graduate Program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,CETER-Center for Epilepsy Surgery, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Santamarina E, Abraira L, Toledo M, González-Cuevas M, Quintana M, Maisterra O, Sueiras M, Guzman L, Salas-Puig J, Sabín JÁ. Prognosis of post-stroke status epilepticus: Effects of time difference between the two events. Seizure 2018; 60:172-177. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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5
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Viale L, Catoira NP, Di Girolamo G, González CD. Pharmacotherapy and motor recovery after stroke. Expert Rev Neurother 2017; 18:65-82. [DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2018.1400910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Viale
- Centro Asistencial Universitario, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Natalia Paola Catoira
- Residencia de Investigación en Salud, Gobierno de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, CABA, Argentina
- Segunda Cátedra de Farmacología, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CABA, Argentina
| | - Guillermo Di Girolamo
- Segunda Cátedra de Farmacología, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CABA, Argentina
- Instituto de Investigaciones Cardiológicas ¨Prof. Dr. Alberto C. Taquini¨, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CABA, Argentina
| | - Claudio Daniel González
- Segunda Cátedra de Farmacología, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CABA, Argentina
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Brondani R, Garcia de Almeida A, Abrahim Cherubini P, Mandelli Mota S, de Alencastro LC, Antunes ACM, Bianchin Muxfeldt M. High Risk of Seizures and Epilepsy after Decompressive Hemicraniectomy for Malignant Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke
. Cerebrovasc Dis Extra 2017; 7:51-61. [PMID: 28359069 PMCID: PMC5425760 DOI: 10.1159/000458730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Decompressive hemicraniectomy (DHC) is a life-saving procedure for treatment of large malignant middle cerebral artery (MCA) strokes. Post-stroke epilepsy is an additional burden for these patients, but its incidence and the risk factors for its development have been poorly investigated. Objective To report the prevalence and risk factors for post-stroke seizures and post-stroke epilepsy after DHC for treatment of large malignant MCA strokes in a cohort of 36 patients. Methods In a retrospective cohort study of 36 patients we report the timing and incidence of post-stroke epilepsy. We analyzed if age, sex, vascular risk factors, side of ischemia, reperfusion therapy, stroke etiology, extension of stroke, hemorrhagic transformation, ECASS scores, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) scores, or modified Rankin scores were risk factors for seizure or epilepsy after DHC for treatment of large MCA strokes. Results The mean patient follow-up time was 1,086 days (SD = 1,172). Out of 36 patients, 9 (25.0%) died before being discharged. After 1 year, a total of 11 patients (30.6%) had died, but 22 (61.1%) of them had a modified Rankin score ≤4. Thirteen patients (36.1%) developed seizures within the first week after stroke. Seizures occurred in 22 (61.1%) of 36 patients (95% CI = 45.17–77.03%). Out of 34 patients who survived the acute period, 19 (55.9%) developed epilepsy after MCA infarcts and DHC (95% CI = 39.21–72.59%). In this study, no significant differences were observed between the patients who developed seizures or epilepsy and those who remained free of seizures or epilepsy regarding age, sex, side of stroke, presence of the clinical risk factors studied, hemorrhagic transformation, time of craniectomy, and Rankin score after 1 year of stroke. Conclusion The incidence of seizures and epilepsy after malignant MCA infarcts submitted to DHC might be very high. Seizure might occur precociously in patients who are not submitted to anticonvulsant prophylaxis. The large stroke volume and the large cortical ischemic area seem to be the main risk factors for seizure or epilepsy development in this subtype of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosane Brondani
- Postgraduate Program in Medicine: Medical Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology (B.R.A.I.N.), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Andrea Garcia de Almeida
- Postgraduate Program in Medicine: Medical Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology (B.R.A.I.N.), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Pedro Abrahim Cherubini
- Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology (B.R.A.I.N.), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Suelen Mandelli Mota
- Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology (B.R.A.I.N.), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | - Apio Cláudio Martins Antunes
- Division of Neurosurgery, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marino Bianchin Muxfeldt
- Postgraduate Program in Medicine: Medical Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Basic Research and Advanced Investigations in Neurology (B.R.A.I.N.), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Division of Neurology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Center for Treatment of Drug Refractory Epilepsy (CETER), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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7
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Abstract
In subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), seizures are frequent and occur at different time points, likely reflecting heterogeneous pathophysiology. Young patients, those with more severe SAH (by clot burden or presence of severe mental status changes at onset or focal neurologic deficits at any time), those with associated increased cortical irritation (by infarction or presence of underlying hematoma), and patients undergoing craniotomy are at higher risk. Advanced neurophysiologic monitoring allows for seizure burden quantification, identification of subclinical seizures, and interictal patterns as well as neurovascular complications that may have an independent impact on the outcome in this population. Practice regarding seizure prophylaxis varies widely; its institution is often guided by the risk-benefit ratio of seizures and medication side effects. Newer anticonvulsants seem to be equally effective and may have a more favorable profile. However, questions regarding the association of seizures and vasospasm, the therapeutic dosing, timing, and duration of antiepileptic treatment and the impact of seizures and antiepileptics on the outcome remain unanswered. In this review, we provide a broad overview of the work in this area and offer a diagnostic and therapeutic approach based on our own expert opinion.
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8
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Schwitzguébel AJP, Benaïm C, Carda S, Torea Filgueira AM, Frischknecht R, Rapin PA. GABAergic drug use and global, cognitive, and motor functional outcomes after stroke. Ann Phys Rehabil Med 2016; 59:320-325. [PMID: 27132886 DOI: 10.1016/j.rehab.2016.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In animal models and healthy volunteers, the use of GABA A receptor agonists (GABA-AGs) seem deleterious for functional recovery. The agents are widely used for subacute stroke, but their effect on functional recovery remains unclear. OBJECTIVES We aimed to evaluate the association between GABA-AG use and functional recovery after stroke. METHODS We retrospectively recruited 434 survivors of subacute stroke admitted for inpatient rehabilitation between 2000 and 2013 in our institution (107 with and 327 without GABA-AG use). We used multivariate regression to assess the association of GABA-AG use and successful functional recovery, defined as reaching, between admission and discharge, the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) of 22 points on the global Functional Independence Measure (FIM). Secondary analyses were the associations of GABA-AG with cognitive and motor FIM MCID and constant GABA-AG exposure (24h/24 GABA-AG) with global, cognitive and motor FIM MCID. A new estimation of the MCID was performed with the standard error of measurement. RESULTS Reaching the global FIM MCID was associated with GABA-AG use (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.54 [95% CI 0.31-0.91], P=0.02) as well as 24h/24 GABA-AG use (aOR 0.25 [0.08-0.83]; P=0.02). Furthermore, GABA-AG and 24h/24 GABA-AG use was inversely but not always significantly associated with reaching the cognitive FIM MCID (aOR 0.56, P=0.07; aOR 0.26, P=0.06, respectively) and motor FIM MCID (aOR 0.51, P=0.07; aOR 0.13, P=0.01, respectively). The estimated MCID was 19 for global FIM, 4 for cognitive FIM, and 16 for motor FIM. CONCLUSIONS GABA-AG use is associated with not reaching successful functional recovery during stroke rehabilitation. Randomised trials are needed to formally establish the potential deleterious effect of GABA-AG use on functional recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J-P Schwitzguébel
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Nestlé Hospital, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - C Benaïm
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Orthopaedic Hospital, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland; Institute for Research in Rehabilitation, Clinique Romande de Réadaptation, Sion, Switzerland
| | - S Carda
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Nestlé Hospital, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - A M Torea Filgueira
- Service of Neurologic Rehabilitation, Institution de Lavigny, Lavigny, Switzerland
| | - R Frischknecht
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Nestlé Hospital, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - P-A Rapin
- Service of Neurologic Rehabilitation, Institution de Lavigny, Lavigny, Switzerland
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Pitkänen A, Roivainen R, Lukasiuk K. Development of epilepsy after ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol 2015; 15:185-197. [PMID: 26597090 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(15)00248-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
For about 30% of patients with epilepsy the cause is unknown. Even in patients with a known risk factor for epilepsy, such as ischaemic stroke, only a subpopulation of patients develops epilepsy. Factors that contribute to the risk for epileptogenesis in a given individual generally remain unknown. Studies in the past decade on epilepsy in patients with ischaemic stroke suggest that, in addition to the primary ischaemic injury, existing difficult-to-detect microscale changes in blood vessels and white matter present as epileptogenic pathologies. Injury severity, location and type of pathological changes, genetic factors, and pre-injury and post-injury exposure to non-genetic factors (ie, the exposome) can divide patients with ischaemic stroke into different endophenotypes with a variable risk for epileptogenesis. These data provide guidance for animal modelling of post-stroke epilepsy, and for laboratory experiments to explore with increased specificity the molecular 'mechanisms, biomarkers, and treatment targets of post-stroke epilepsy in different circumstances, with the aim of modifying epileptogenesis after ischaemic stroke in individual patients without compromising recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asla Pitkänen
- Department of Neurobiology, A. I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Reina Roivainen
- Department of Neurology, Hyvinkää Hospital, Hyvinkää, Finland
| | - Katarzyna Lukasiuk
- The Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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