Effect of vagotomy and glucose administration on gastric acid secretion in the Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua

The gut–brain axis in vertebrates: implications for food intake regulation

The gut and brain are constantly communicating and influencing each other through neural, endocrine and immune signals in an interaction referred to as the gut–brain axis. Within this communication system, the gastrointestinal tract, including the gut microbiota, sends information on energy status to the brain, which, after integrating these and other inputs, transmits feedback to the gastrointestinal tract. This allows the regulation of food intake and other physiological processes occurring in the gastrointestinal tract, including motility, secretion, digestion and absorption. Although extensive literature is available on the mechanisms governing the communication between the gut and the brain in mammals, studies on this axis in other vertebrates are scarce and often limited to a single species, which may not be representative for obtaining conclusions for an entire group. This Review aims to compile the available information on the gut–brain axis in birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish, with a special focus on its involvement in food intake regulation and, to a lesser extent, in digestive processes. Additionally, we will identify gaps of knowledge that need to be filled in order to better understand the functioning and physiological significance of such an axis in non-mammalian vertebrates.

Lixisenatide requires a functional gut-vagus nerve-brain axis to trigger insulin secretion in controls and type 2 diabetic mice

Endogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) regulates glucose-induced insulin secretion through both direct β-cell-dependent and indirect gut-brain axis-dependent pathways. However, little is known about the mode of action of the GLP-1 receptor agonist lixisenatide. We studied the effects of lixisenatide (intraperitoneal injection) on insulin secretion, gastric emptying, vagus nerve activity, and brain c-Fos activation in naive, chronically vagotomized, GLP-1 receptor knockout (KO), high-fat diet-fed diabetic mice, or db/db mice. Lixisenatide dose-dependently increased oral glucose-induced insulin secretion that is correlated with a decrease of glycemia. In addition, lixisenatide inhibited gastric emptying. These effects of lixisenatide were abolished in vagotomized mice, characterized by a delay of gastric emptying and in GLP-1 receptor KO mice. Intraperitoneal administration of lixisenatide also increased the vagus nerve firing rate and the number of c-Fos-labeled neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) of the brainstem. In diabetic mouse models, lixisenatide increased the firing rate of the vagus nerve when administrated simultaneously to an intraduodenal glucose. It increased also insulin secretion and c-Fos activation in the NTS. Altogether, our findings show that lixisenatide requires a functional vagus nerve and neuronal gut-brain-islets axis as well as the GLP-1 receptor to regulate glucose-induced insulin secretion in healthy and diabetic mice. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Lixisenatide is an agonist of the glucagon-like protein (GLP)-1 receptor, modified from exendin 4, used to treat type 2 diabetic patients. However, whereas the mode of action of endogenous GLP-1 is extensively studied, the mode of action of the GLP-1 analog lixisenatide is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrated that lixisenatide activates the vagus nerve and recruits the gut-brain axis through the GLP-1 receptor to decrease gastric emptying and stimulate insulin secretion to improve glycemia.

Autonomic control of glands and secretion: a comparative view

The autonomic nervous system together with circulating and local hormones control secretion from glands. This article summarizes histochemical and functional studies on the autonomic innervation and control of secretory glands in non-mammalian vertebrates, including secretion of saliva in the mouth and gastric acid in the stomach, secretion of enzymes and bicarbonate from the pancreas and gut wall, secretion of mucus in the gut epithelium and onto the skin, and salt secretion from salt glands and rectal glands. Cholinergic and adrenergic nerves, directly or indirectly, in combination with different types of peptidergic and other nerves appear to innervate gland tissues and affect secretion in all investigated species.

The potential influence of gastric acid secretion during fasting on digestion time in leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata)

Vertebrates are known to differ in their response of gastric acid secretion during periods of fasting, yet the reasons for these differences remain unclear. Previously, continuous measurements of gastric pH in leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) had determined that acid secretion in this species is continuous. In order to determine if maintaining an empty acidic stomach may reduce digestion time of a subsequent meal, a simple descriptive model based on acid secretion rates was developed. In vivo gastric acid secretion rates were measured using an auto-titration technique. Acid secretion rates were pH dependent, with rates of 6.1+/-3.0 (+/-1 SD) mmol/h when gastric pH was >2.5, and 1.7+/-0.8 mmol/h when pH was 2.0-2.5. Analysis by Western blots suggests that pepsin secretion occurs within 1 h of feeding, and that there is a de-coupling of acid and pepsin secretion. The model estimates that digestion time can be reduced by 5.7+/-1.3 h and pepsin activity increased by 10-100% during that time if the stomach is acidic before feeding. Gastric acid secretion during fasting is hypothesized to reduce digestion time of a subsequent meal in frequently feeding sharks, which may be advantageous for exploiting resources that are spatially and temporally unpredictable.

Basal H2-receptor stimulated and pH-dependent acid secretion from an isolated stomach mucosa preparation of the cod,Gadus morhua, studied using a modified pH-static titration method

Gastric acid secretion from isolated cod stomach mucosa was measured using a pH-static titration method. A basal acid secretion rate (BASR) of 6.0±0.6 nEqH(+)min(-1)cm(-1) was measured when using 0.9% NaCl as luminal solution. There was a dose-dependent increase in response to histamine between 0.12 and 0.20 μM (EC50=0.15 μM), above which gastric acid secretion plateaued at 13.5±1.8 nEqH(+)min(-1)cm(-1). Ranitidine, a H2-receptor antagonist, completely blocked the stimulatory effect of histamine and reduced the BASR. The H1-receptor antagonist, clemastine, did not inhibit the response to histamine. Acid secretion rates decreased significantly when the pH of the luminal side of the mucosa was lowered from pH 5.75 to pH 4.50, indicating that a negative feedback mechanism was operating. Histological staining showed that oxynticopeptic cells were uniformly distributed throughout the cardiac stomach.It is concluded that the acid secretion in the isolated stomach mucosa of cod can be measuredin vitro with a pH-static titration method. The method was used to demonstrate that the BASR is downregulated by a decrease in pH. Furthermore, we conclude that the histamine receptor in the cod stomach mucosa resembles the mammalian H2-receptor and that histamine is secreted under basal conditions.

Effects of tropisetron, a 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptor blocker, on intestinal secretion induced by cholera toxin or deoxycholic acid in rabbits in vivo

It has been suggested that 5-hydroxytryptamine is involved in the pathogenesis of various intestinal hypersecretory states including cholera. In this study, the effect of tropisetron (ICS 205-930), a specific 5-hydroxytryptamine type-3 receptor blocker, on jejunal and colonic fluid secretion induced respectively by cholera toxin and deoxycholic acid was investigated in rabbits using isolated loops of intestine in vivo. Marked fluid accumulation in both the jejunal and colonic loops was observed after exposure to cholera toxin and deoxycholic acid respectively. Elevation of jejunal and colonic mucosal cyclic adenosine monophosphate concentrations was also noted. Intraperitoneal administration of tropisetron dose-dependent inhibited jejunal secretion induced by cholera toxin. In contrast, no significant anti-secretory effect of tropisetron was observed against colonic secretion induced by deoxycholic acid. Tropisetron did not affect elevated mucosal cyclic adenosine monophosphate concentrations. The inhibitory effect of tropisetron on intestinal secretion induced by cholera toxin, which was independent of cyclic adenosine monophosphate formation, suggests that 5-hydroxytryptamine plays an important role in this type of secretion.

Effect of 5-HT on basal and stimulated secretions of acid and pepsin and on gastric volume outflow in the in vivo gastrically and intestinally perfused cod, Gadus morhua

Gastric acid and pepsin responses to 5-HT was measured, in cod, during gastric and intestinal perfusions. During basal conditions, both acid and pepsin secretions were stimulated by 0.25 mumol/kg X h of 5-HT. A higher dose, 1 mumol/kg X h inhibited acid secretion and stimulated the output of pepsin both during basal conditions and during stimulation with histamine or carbachol. Histamine and carbachol, when given alone, were powerful acid stimulators but in comparison with 5-HT poor pepsigogues. Most probably due to inhibition of gastric volume secretion, gastric outflow volume decreased during treatment with higher doses of 5-HT. However, when the intestinal perfusion was omitted and water support instead given by the intramuscular route, 5-HT induced a large increase in gastric outflow volume. Our results suggest that 5-HT may be a physiological regulator of acid and pepsin secretion in the fish. The dipsogenic effect seen in the absence of intestinal perfusion indicates that 5-HT may be involved also in the regulation of drinking.

Immunocytochemistry of serotonin-containing nerves in the human gut

An immunocytochemical technique, using L-tryptophan enhancement and paraformaldehyde fixation, has been successfully applied for the demonstration of serotonin-containing neurons in the human enteric nervous system. Throughout the intestine, serotonin-immunoreactive nerves were mainly detected in the myenteric plexus and, to a smaller extent, in the submucous plexus, while hardly any nerve fibres were seen in the mucosa. This approach provides a useful tool for the investigation of neuropathological conditions of the gut.

Inhibition of gastric acid secretion by intestinal and parenteral administration of a mixture of L-amino acids in the Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua

The effect on basal gastric acid secretion in the cod of a mixture of L-amino acids (AA) was studied. Acid secretion was measured during a 5 h treatment period when the AA was administered intestinally, i.m. or i.v., and plasma alpha-amino nitrogen following the treatment period. Acid secretion was inhibited, the depression related to the plasma level of AA but unrelated to the administration route. It is suggested that acid secretion is inhibited by absorbed AA acting from the blood side, without involvement of an intestinal mechanism.

5-hydroxytryptamine and cholera secretion. Physiological and pharmacological studies in cats and rats

The intestinal secretion evoked by close intra-arterial infusion of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in cats was inhibited by tetrodotoxin, a drug abolishing action potentials. Furthermore, the intestinal secretion produced by placing a 2-mM 5-HT solution in the intestinal lumen of rats was inhibited by hexamethonium, a ganglionic receptor-blocking agent. These observations strongly indicate that 5-HT-induced secretion is, at least in part, neurally mediated. It was also shown that 5-HT receptors are involved in the pathophysiology of choleraic secretion, since the secretion was inhibited by making the experimental animal tachyphylactic against 5-HT. No effects of 5-HT tachyphylaxis were noted on fluid transport in normal intestines. The results are discussed in relation to a new hypothesis for the pathophysiology of cholera secretion.

Effects of exogenous angiotensin II in the Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua. Observations on gastric acid secretion, gastric sham drinking and gastric mucosal plasma flow (14C-aniline clearance)

Cods were equipped with cannulae for drainage of the stomach and for the separate perfusion of the stomach (pure seawater containing phenol red as a volume marker) and intestine (diluted seawater). Acidity of the gastric effluence was titrated, its volume calculated from the phenol red concentration. Gastric mucosal plasma flow (MPF) was estimated by gastric 14C-aniline clearance. I.m. injection of angiotensin II (AII) depressed basal acid secretion in a dose-dependent fashion. Also the MPF was reduced, but relatively less than the secretory depression. Therefore, the AII-induced secretory inhibition could not be explained by restrained mucosal blood flow. Perfusion of the intestine with diluted seawater, or a continuous i.m. infusion of 0.6% NaCl both rendered the fishes non-drinking. A high dose of AII (150 micrograms/kg . h) induced drinking in intestinally perfused cod while lower doses (15, 50 micrograms/kg . h) did not. In i.m. saline-injected cod, all three doses were dipsogenic. The results suggest that 0.6% saline infusion induces a permanent satiety and that intestinal perfusion in addition induces a preabsorptive satiety. The preabsorptive satiety appears more resistant to the dipsogenic action of AII than the permanent one.

On the role of intramural nerves in the pathogenesis of cholera toxin-induced intestinal secretion

Intestinal secretion was produced in anesthetized cats and rats by exposing isolated intestinal segments to cholera enterotoxin. Giving, for example, tetrodotoxin, a nerve-conduction-blocking agent, or adding lidocaine, a local anesthetic agent, to the solution in the intestinal segments markedly inhibited the rate of choleraic secretion, and in most experiments a net absorption of fluid was observed. The results suggest that intramural nervous mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of choleraic secretion.

Stimulation of gastric acid secretion and suppression of VIP-like immunoreactivity by bombesin in the Atlantic codfish, Gadus morhua

Cods were equipped with cannulae for drainage of the stomach and for separate perfusion of the stomach (pure sea-water) and intestine (diluted sea-water). Acidity and volume of gastric effluence were measured. Plasma immunoreactive gastrin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) were assayed in some experiments. The high rate of "basal" acid secretion was further elevated by i.m. administration of bombesin, but not by pentagastrin. Exogenous VIP inhibited acid secretion. Following 5 h of bombesin infusion, plasma gastrin-IR was unaffected while VIP-IR was depressed compared to saline-treated controls. The possibility that bombesin stimulates acid secretion by inhibiting VIP-release is discussed.