NN'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) reduces pancreatic NaHCO3 secretion without changing pancreatic tissue ATP levels

Characterization of Na+-K+-2Cl- Cotransporter Activity in Rabbit Lacrimal Gland Duct Cells

Purpose

We recently reported that isolated duct segments from rabbit lacrimal gland (LG) were able to secrete fluid in response to secretagogues, which were blocked completely by bumetanide. This suggests the functional involvement of Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter (NKCC1) in ductal fluid secretion. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the activity profile of NKCC1 in isolated rabbit LG duct segments.

Methods

Interlobular ducts were isolated from fresh rabbit LG tissue. Microfluorometry with the ammonium (NH₄⁺)–pulse technique was used to elicit pH changes in duct cells, and the rate of bumetanide-sensitive cytosolic acidification after addition of NH₄⁺ was used to quantify the activity of NKCC1.

Results

While basal activity of NKCC1 was undetectable, low cytosolic chloride (Cl⁻) level and hyperosmotic challenge (390 mOsm) were able to increase the activity of NKCC1. Carbachol (100 μM) had no significant effect on NKCC1 activity. Elevation of cytosolic calcium (Ca²⁺) level with Ca²⁺-ionophore (A 23187, 1 μM) did not cause any alteration in the activity of the cotransporter while direct activation of protein kinase C (phorbol myristate acetate, 100 nM) increased its activity slightly but in a significant manner. Addition of either forskolin (10 μM), cell-permeable cAMP analogue (8-bromo cAMP, 100 μM) or vasoactive intestinal peptide (200 nM) resulted in a significant increase in the activity of NKCC1.

Conclusions

These results highlight the functional involvement of NKCC1 in LG duct secretion. These findings may facilitate our understanding of LG function and may contribute to the development of targeted pharmacologic interventions in case of dry eye disease.

Molecular mechanism of pancreatic and salivary gland fluid and HCO3 secretion

Fluid and HCO(3)(-) secretion is a vital function of all epithelia and is required for the survival of the tissue. Aberrant fluid and HCO(3)(-) secretion is associated with many epithelial diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, pancreatitis, Sjögren's syndrome, and other epithelial inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Significant progress has been made over the last 20 years in our understanding of epithelial fluid and HCO(3)(-) secretion, in particular by secretory glands. Fluid and HCO(3)(-) secretion by secretory glands is a two-step process. Acinar cells secrete isotonic fluid in which the major salt is NaCl. Subsequently, the duct modifies the volume and electrolyte composition of the fluid to absorb the Cl(-) and secrete HCO(3)(-). The relative volume secreted by acinar and duct cells and modification of electrolyte composition of the secreted fluids varies among secretory glands to meet their physiological functions. In the pancreas, acinar cells secrete a small amount of NaCl-rich fluid, while the duct absorbs the Cl(-) and secretes HCO(3)(-) and the bulk of the fluid in the pancreatic juice. Fluid secretion appears to be driven by active HCO(3)(-) secretion. In the salivary glands, acinar cells secrete the bulk of the fluid in the saliva that is driven by active Cl(-) secretion and contains high concentrations of Na(+) and Cl(-). The salivary glands duct absorbs both the Na(+) and Cl(-) and secretes K(+) and HCO(3)(-). In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanism of fluid and HCO(3)(-) secretion by the pancreas and salivary glands, to highlight the similarities of the fundamental mechanisms of acinar and duct cell functions, and to point out the differences to meet gland-specific secretions.

Mechanisms of bicarbonate secretion in the pancreatic duct

In many species the pancreatic duct epithelium secretes HCO3- ions at a concentration of around 140 mM by a mechanism that is only partially understood. We know that HCO3- uptake at the basolateral membrane is achieved by Na+-HCO3- cotransport and also by a H+-ATPase and Na+/H+ exchanger operating together with carbonic anhydrase. At the apical membrane, the secretion of moderate concentrations of HCO3- can be explained by the parallel activity of a Cl-/HCO3- exchanger and a Cl- conductance, either the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) or a Ca2+-activated Cl- channel (CaCC). However, the sustained secretion of HCO3- into a HCO- -rich luminal fluid cannot be explained by conventional Cl-/HCO3- exchange. HCO3- efflux across the apical membrane is an electrogenic process that is facilitated by the depletion of intracellular Cl-, but it remains to be seen whether it is mediated predominantly by CFTR or by an electrogenic SLC26 anion exchanger.

Secretin causes H+/HCO3- secretion from pig pancreatic ductules by vacuolar-type H(+)-adenosine triphosphatase

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Secretin stimulates pancreatic ductules to secrete HCO3- into pancreatic juice and H+ into interstitial fluid. The aim of the present study was first to examine whether ductular H+ secretion is inhibited by micromolar concentrations of bafilomycin A1, which blocks vacuolar H(+)-adenosine triphosphatase by specific action, and secondly to test for evidence of ductular Na+/HCO3- cotransport.

METHODS

Ductular H+ secretion was estimated from the rate of intracellular pH recovery after acid-loading (24 mmol/L NH4Cl) microdissected pancreatic ductules from pig, mounted in a flow-through perfusion chamber on the stage of a fluorescent microscope. Intracellular pH was measured using the fluorescent pH indicator 2'7'-bis (carboxyethyl)-5,6-carboxyfluorescein and dual-wave-length excitation of fluorescence. The ducts were superfused perfused with either HCO3(-)-free HEPES-containing buffers or HCO3(-)-containing buffers.

RESULTS

Secretin (10(-8) mol/L) induced a net H+ secretion of 1.87 +/- 0.23 mumol.mL cell vol-1.min-1 that was blocked by 10(-6) mol/L bafilomycin A1 and was unaffected by Na+ substitution with choline using HEPES superfusion buffers. Secretin-stimulated ductules superfused with bicarbonate-containing, Cl(-)-free buffers showed Na(+)-dependent and 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2, 2'-disulfonic acid-inhibitable alkalinization of intracellular pH.

CONCLUSIONS

Secretin causes H+/HCO3- secretion from pancreatic ductules by a mechanism involving vacuolar-type H(+)-adenosine phosphatase. Pancreatic ductules also show Na+/HCO3- cotransport, which may account for a small fraction of secreted bicarbonate.

Na(+)-H+ exchange is not important for pancreatic HCO3- secretion in the pig

Pancreatic inter- and intralobular duct cells extrude H(+)-ions to interstitial fluid when they secrete HCO3- to pancreatic juice. This study assesses the potential importance of Na(+)-H(+)-ion exchange for H(+)-ion extrusion and secretion of HCO3-, using the Na(+)-H+ exchange blockers amiloride and hexamethylene-amiloride. Intracellular pH (pHi) in inter- and intralobular pancreatic duct epithelium was measured using BCECF fluorescence. H(+)-ion efflux was measured using a NH4Cl prepulse, acid-loading technique. In HCO3(-)-free media, pHi recovery following acid loading was blocked by amiloride (10(-4) M) and hexamethylene-amiloride (10(-6) M), demonstrating amiloride- and hexamethylene-amiloride-sensitive Na(+)-H+ exchange. However, 5 x 10(-6) M hexamethylene-amiloride did not reduce secretin-dependent pancreatic HCO3- secretion in vivo. Maximal H(+)-efflux through Na(+)-H+ exchange was 1.5 +/- 0.2 mumol min-1 ml cell volume-1, i.e. less than 1% of estimated net H(+)-ion efflux during HCO3- secretion.

CONCLUSION

amiloride- and hexamethylene amiloride sensitive Na(+)-H+ exchange is not important for secretin-dependent pancreatic HCO3- secretion in the pig. Other mechanisms for H+ extrusion dominate.

Colchicine inhibits the effects of secretin on pancreatic duct cell tubulovesicles and HCO3- secretion in the pig

Secretin stimulation clears the cytoplasm of intralobular pancreatic duct cells in pigs of tubulovesicles and causes these cells to secrete HCO3- into the pancreatic juice. To determine whether the clearance of cytoplasmic tubulovesicles involves the microtubule system and is important for initiation of HCO3- secretion, the effect of the microtubule poison colchicine on duct cell morphology and pancreatic HCO3- secretion was measured in anaesthetized pigs. Before colchicine, secretin reduced the density of tubulovesicles in the cytoplasm of pancreatic duct cells from 92 +/- 8 U to 8 +/- 2 U and initiated pancreatic secretion of 176 +/- 21 mumols min-1 HCO3-. After colchicine, secretin failed to lower duct cell tubulovesicle density and caused the secretion of only 77 +/- 14 mumols min-1 HCO3-. By contrast, lumicolchicine, an isomer of colchicine that does not affect microtubules, did not inhibit pancreatic HCO3- secretion. Colchicine did not reduce carbonic anhydrase or Na,K-ATPase activities in in-vitro assays. The clearance of tubulovesicles from the cytoplasm of pancreatic duct cells therefore seems to be microtubule-dependent and important for the pancreatic HCO3- secretion.

Effects of digitoxin and lithium, used as a marker of passive Na transport, on secretin-dependent bile flow in the pig

The present study was performed in anaesthetized pigs, and the first aim was to assess the role of Na,K-ATPase in secretin-dependent biliary HCO3 secretion (JbHCO3). Intra-arterial administration of the cardiac glycoside digitoxin (0.2 mg/kg-1) reduced hepatic Na K-ATPase activity, JbHCO3 and secretin-dependent bile flow by 24, 55 and 34% respectively. In the second part of this study lithium (Li) was used as a marker of passive Na transport to assess the electrochemical gradient for Na flux into bile duct lumen during secretin-stimulated bile flow and impeded biliary osmotic water flow by i.v. infusion of glucose. At plasma glucose 85 (73-96) mmol l-1, bile [Na] and [Li] exceeded their concentrations in plasma by 57 and 47% respectively. By using the Nernst equation, transepithelial potential difference (PD) during hyperglycaemia was estimated to be -6.2 (0 to -10.8) mV (ductal lumen negative), which corresponds to a [Li]bile/[Li]plasma ratio of 1.3 (1.0-1.5). The ratio was not significantly different from the observed [Li]bile/[Li]plasma ratio of 1.4 (1.3-1.5). It is concluded (1) that Na, K-ATPase is necessary for JbHCO3, probably by sustaining the cell membrane PD (cell interior negative) which is a driving force for apical electrogenic HCO3 secretion, and (2) transepithelial Li (and hence Na) flux is driven solely by the negative transcellular PD during secretin-stimulated bile flow in the pig.

Secretin empties bile duct cell cytoplasm of vesicles when it initiates ductular HCO3- secretion in the pig

To determine whether secretin has any effect on bile duct cell ultrastructure, bile duct cells from liver biopsy specimens of pigs were analyzed morphometrically. During secretory rest, bile duct cell cytoplasmic vesicles totaled 96 (84-103) arbitrary units per cell volume (U). Secretin increased bile HCO3- secretion from 9 mumol/min (range 6-15) to 131 mumol/min (range 118-200) and lowered the bile duct cell vesicles to 5 U (range 3-9). Acute elevation of arterial PCO2 to 10.9 kPa (range 10.2-11.1) doubled vesicle number in resting duct cells and augmented the secretory response to secretin. At high arterial PCO2, secretin cleared the duct cell cytoplasm of vesicles and more than doubled the basolateral plasma membrane surface area. Taurocholate-induced canalicular choleresis, in contrast, did not alter duct cell morphology. It is concluded that secretin clears the bile duct cell cytoplasm of vesicles as it initiates ductular HCO3- secretion, possibly through causing exocytotic insertion of vesicle material into the basolateral plasma membrane.

Effects of bumetanide on bile flow in the pig

This study was performed on 12 anaesthetized pigs in order to examine the effect of the 'loop' diuretic bumetanide (inhibitor of Na,K,Cl-co-transport) on ductular bile secretion. It has previously been shown that administration of furosemide (a less potent 'loop' diuretic) to dogs and rats increases bile flow due to inhibition of ductular reabsorption of electrolytes and water. In group I (n = 6) bumetanide (median biliary concentration: 8.4 x 10(-3) mol l-1) increased bile flow and biliary concentration of HCO3 by 200% (116-320) and 50% (26-96), respectively. Biliary concentration of Cl was significantly decreased by 6% (2-12) following administration of bumetanide. In group II (n = 6) bile secretion was measured during secretin infusion (3 CU kg b. wt h-1) in the arterial pH range of 7.40-7.00, both before and after bumetanide administration in each animal. Bumetanide (median biliary concentration: 2.7 x 10(-3) mol I-1) did not significantly alter biliary secretion of water, HCO3, Na, K or Cl. Bile acid secretion was reduced by 30% from 43 (28-55) to 30 (17-41) mumol min-1 (P less than 0.05) while hepatic venous concentration of bile acids was raised by 90% (54-126) from 184 (113-309) to 350 (229-502) mumol l-1 (P less than 0.05) at slightly increased hepatic blood flow. Hepatic venous serum concentration of bumetanide was 4.8 (2.1-7.4) x 10(-4) mol l-1 (unbound fraction).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of arterial pH and carbon dioxide on pancreatic exocrine H+/HCO3- secretion and secretin-dependent translocation of cytoplasmic vesicles in pancreatic duct cells

To elucidate why arterial pH and carbon dioxide (PaCO2) modify the pancreatic H+/HCO3- secretory response to secretin stimulation, experiments were performed on anaesthetized pigs, recording the effects of arterial pH and PaCO2 on exocrine H+/HCO3- secretion and on morphology of pancreatic duct cells. Duct cells contained numerous cytoplasmic vesicles at secretory rest. Their number more than doubled during elevation of PaCO2 from 5.5 to 11.0 kPa. At arterial pH 7.40, maximal secretin stimulation cleared the cytoplasm of duct cells of more than 90% of the vesicles. At high PaCO2, this was accompanied by doubling the basolateral plasma membrane area and a 30% higher secretion rate than at PaCO2 5.5 kPa. Lowering arterial pH to 7.0 more than halved the secretin-induced vesicle clearance of duct-cell cytoplasm as well as exocrine H+/HCO3- secretion and abolished the secretin-dependent basolateral membrane area changes. Supramaximal secretin stimulation did not reverse the inhibitory effect of severe metabolic acidosis on secretion. It is concluded that PaCO2 and arterial pH may modify the secretory response to secretin through determining the incorporation of cytoplasmic vesicle material into the basolateral plasma membrane of duct cells.

Effect of arterial pH and PCO2 on biliary HCO3- secretion in the pig

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of changes in arterial pH and PCO2 on biliary HCO3- secretion. This was done in order to further characterize the various ion transport mechanisms considered responsible for biliary HCO3- secretion in the pig. Experiments were performed on two groups of six pigs. In both groups arterial pH was varied in steps from pH 7.40 to 7.00, both at PCO2 5.5 kPa and PCO2 10 kPa. In group I (n = 6), data were obtained on the effect of arterial pH and PCO2 on ductular HCO3- secretion in bile acid depleted (cholestyramine pretreated), secretin-infused pigs. In group II (n = 6), the effect of pH and PCO2 on canalicular HCO3- secretion was studied in ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA)-infused pigs (3 mumol min-1 kg-1 body wt). In group I, biliary HCO3- secretion exhibited PCO2-dependent, positive straight line relationships to arterial pH. An increment in biliary HCO3- secretion of 17 (11-24)% was seen during high PCO2 at pH 7.40. In group II, biliary HCO3- secretion exhibited PCO2-dependent, positive curvilinear relationships to arterial pH. A median increment in HCO3- secretion of 37 (20-62)% was seen during elevated PCO2 at arterial pH 7.40. The linear dependence of ductular HCO3- secretion on arterial pH and the effect of elevated PCO2 on HCO3- secretion fit well with findings in other epithelia, where proton transport is thought be driven by a proton pump. A computer simulation provided evidence suggesting that secretin-dependent HCO3- secretion does not involve the action of a Na+/H+ ion exchanger--in contrast to UDCA-dependent HCO3- secretion. It is concluded that ductular and canalicular HCO3- secretion could be mediated by a proton pump and a Na+/H+ ion exchanger in addition to canalicular HCO3- secretion due to solvent drag and diffusion, respectively.

Ultrastructure of pancreatic duct cells at secretory rest and during secretin-dependent NaHCO3 secretion

The study was undertaken to identify possible ultrastructural changes occurring in pancreatic duct cells in relation to secretin-dependent NaHCO3 secretion, Pancreatic biopsies were obtained for examination, following in situ glutaraldehyde fixation from four groups of anaesthetized, young pigs. In the resting state, pancreatic duct cell cytoplasm was found to contain multiple vesicles of approximately 0.2 micron diameter. Elevation of systemic arterial PCO2 to 11.1 (10.6-11.6) kPa increased the number of vesicles per unit volume of resting cells by approximately 250%. During secretin-dependent NaHCO3 secretion, the duct cell cytoplasm was devoid of vesicles. Following cessation of secretin-dependent NaHCO3 secretion, cytoplasmic vesicles reappeared. The observed changes in the population of cytoplasmic vesicles in pancreatic duct cells may be causally related to the exocrine secretion of NaHCO3.

Localization of K-NPPase and Li+ secretion in the exocrine pancreas of the pig

To study the mode of transepithelial Na+ transport into pancreatic ducts during secretin-dependent NaHCO3 secretion, Na, K-ATPase was first localized within the exocrine pancreas of the pig using a cytochemical reaction for K-dependent p-nitrophenylphosphatase (K-NPPase). K-NPPase staining was confined to the lateral cell membrane bordering the intercellular spaces between ductal cells, negating the possibility of primary active, transcellular Na+ transport into pancreatic ducts. To assess how transepithelial Na+ transport may be coupled to HCO-3 secretion, net flux of Li+ into pancreatic juice was measured following intravenous systemic Li+ loading of 12 secretin infused, anaesthetized pigs. At plasma Li+ 32 (23-35) mmol l-1, Li+ displaced Na+ as accompanying cation to secreted HCO-3, and Li+/Na+ in pancreatic juice matched Li+/Na+ in arterial plasma. During superimposed inhibition of pancreatic water flux by hyperglycaemia, Li+ and Na+ were both transported against a transepithelial concentration gradient. Li+ reduced pancreatic HCO-3 secretion rate by 14 (-2 to -20)%, as well as Na,K-ATPase activity in a separate in vitro assay. The finding that Li+ substituted for Na+ in the secretion even during reduced osmotic water flow suggests that Na+ and Li+ are transported together with secreted HCO-3 into pancreatic juice by an electrogenic mechanism in addition to solvent drag and diffusion.

The effect of amiloride on biliary HCO3- secretion in the anaesthetized pig

The present study was performed on 29 anaesthetized pigs and shows that the bile acid ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) produces a flow of bile rich in HCO3- compared with taurocholic acid (TCA). The slope relating biliary HCO3- secretion to bile acid secretion was 0.59 (0.44-0.82) and 0.33 (0.29-0.38) during venous infusion of UDCA and TCA, respectively. We next wanted to evaluate the importance of Na+/H+ ion exchange for biliary HCO3- secretion. High doses of amiloride were employed in order to impair the hepatic Na+/H+ ion exchanger. It was reasoned that any reduction in H+ efflux through the hepatic Na+/H+ ion exchanger involved in causing biliary HCO3- secretion would be translated into an equimolar fall in biliary HCO3- secretion. We found that amiloride (2.0 X 10(-4) mol l-1 plasma) reduced UDCA-dependent canalicular HCO3- secretion by 26 (14-35)% without concurrently reducing bile acid secretion. Amiloride (2.9 X 10(-4) mol l-1 plasma) did not significantly reduce secretin-dependent ductular HCO3- secretion. In this group of animals amiloride reduced bile acid secretion by 13 (5-22)%. It is concluded that Na+/H+ ion exchanger is essential for UDCA-dependent canalicular HCO3- secretion, but not for secretin-dependent ductular HCO3- secretion.