Urine specific gravity values in clinically healthy young pet ferrets (Mustela furo)

Longitudinal examination of urine pH, specific gravity, protein, culture, and antimicrobial resistance profiles in healthy dogs

BACKGROUND

Urine is routinely evaluated in dogs to assess health. Reference ranges for many urine properties are well established, but the scope of variation in these properties over time within healthy dogs is not well characterized.

OBJECTIVES

Longitudinally characterize urine properties in healthy dogs over 3 months.

ANIMALS

Fourteen healthy client-owned dogs.

METHODS

In this prospective study, dogs were evaluated for health; then, mid-stream free-catch urine was collected from each dog at 12 timepoints over 3 months. Urine pH, urine specific gravity (USG), protein, cultures, and antimicrobial resistance profiles were assessed at each timepoint.

RESULTS

Urine pH varied within and between dogs over time (Friedman's test: within P = .03; between P < .005). However, USG, protein, and bacterial diversity of urine were consistent within dogs over time, and only varied between dogs (Kruskal-Wallis: between all P < .005). Antimicrobial resistant isolates were identified in 12 out of 14 dogs with 34 of 48 of the isolates demonstrating resistance to amoxicillin.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Urine pH should be assessed at multiple timepoints via pH meter before making clinical decisions. Mid-stream free-catch urine with high concentrations of bacteria (>105  CFU/mL) should not be considered the only indicator of urinary tract infection. Bacterial isolates from dogs in this study had widespread resistance to amoxicillin/oxacillin underscoring the need for antimicrobial stewardship.

Variation in mineral types of uroliths from ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) submitted for analysis in North America, Europe, or Asia over an 8-year period

OBJECTIVE

To compare mineral types of naturally occurring uroliths in ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) from North America, Europe, and Asia and to identify potential risk factors associated with cystine urolithiasis in ferrets.

SAMPLES

1,054 laboratory submission records of uroliths obtained from ferrets between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2018.

PROCEDURES

For this cross-sectional study, the medical records databases at 4 diagnostic laboratories were searched for records of submissions of uroliths obtained from ferrets. Data collection included submission date; ferret sex, neuter status, and age; receiving laboratory and continent; and urolith mineral type. Regression analyses were performed to identify variables associated with cystine uroliths.

RESULTS

Of the 1,054 urolith submissions, 1,013 were from North America, with 92.6% (938/1,013; 95% CI, 90.8% to 94.1%) cystine uroliths, and 41 were from Europe and Asia, with only 26.8% (11/41; 95% CI, 15.7% to 41.9%) cystine uroliths. Median age was 2.0 years for ferrets with cystine urolithiasis versus 4.0 years for those with other types of uroliths. Submissions were more likely cystine uroliths for ferrets in North America versus Europe and Asia (adjusted OR [aOR], 59.5; 95% CI, 21.4 to 165.6), for ferrets that were younger (aOR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.58 to 0.77), or for submissions in 2018 versus 2010 (aOR, 21.1; 95% CI, 5.1 to 87.9).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results indicated that the proportion of submissions that were cystine uroliths dramatically increased in North America between 2010 and 2018. There is an urgent need to determine underlying causes and mitigate cystine urolithiasis in ferrets.

Disorders of the Urinary and Reproductive Systems in Ferrets

Urogenital lesions are relatively common in ferrets. Renal disease is diagnosed as in traditional small animal medicine; however, peculiarities in ferrets include physiologically low levels of creatinine. Renal cysts are very common in ferrets but are usually incidental findings. Uroliths are usually composed of struvite or cystine. Urethral obstruction in male ferrets is predominantly caused by adrenal-associated prostatic disease. Spontaneous cystitis is rare in ferrets. Primary reproductive disease is uncommon in ferrets in the United States where animals are usually neutered at 6 weeks of age. In other countries, ferrets either remain unneutered or are neutered at 5 to 6 months of age. Ferrets are seasonal breeders, and female are induced ovulators. Prolonged estrus and hyperestrogenism often causes profound bone marrow suppression.

Basic Approach to Veterinary Care of Ferrets

The approach to preventive medicine and basic veterinary care in ferrets is very similar to that used in dogs and cats. Special equipment needs are minimal, and pet ferrets can be easily incorporated into a general small animal practice. This chapter describes the unique aspects of handling, restraint, and clinical and treatment techniques used in ferrets.

Advances in Exotic Animal Clinical Pathology

Over the last 10 years, exotic animal clinical pathology has been evolving, improving health assessment in avian, mammal, fish, reptile, and amphibian patients. These advances are reviewed in this article. Species-specific reference intervals for blood parameters are becoming more available (eg, for ionized calcium, endocrine panels, and vitamin D plasmatic concentrations). In addition, new technologies are being developed to facilitate targeted metabolite detection and result acquisition by veterinarians. Novel techniques, biomarkers, and clinical changes related to disease have been described in avian, mammal, fish, reptile and amphibian species. The use of mobile applications may also be helpful.

Chylous ascites associated with abdominal trauma and intestinal resection-anastomosis in a pet ferret (Mustela putorius furo)

CASE DESCRIPTION A 10-week-old 0.73-kg (1.6-lb) castrated male domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) was referred for exploratory laparotomy because of pneumoperitoneum and possible septic peritonitis after being bitten by the owner's dog. CLINICAL FINDINGS Abdominal exploration revealed a large laceration of the duodenum, tears of the jejunal mesentery, and 2 small tears in the abdominal wall. Chylous abdominal effusion developed 48 hours after surgery. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Postoperative care included supportive treatment, analgesia, and antimicrobials. An abdominal drain was placed during the laparotomy and enabled monitoring of abdominal fluid production. Enteral feeding was provided through an esophagostomy tube. The chylous fluid production rapidly decreased after treatment with octreotide was initiated, and the ferret improved. Chyloabdomen resolved after 8 days of hospitalization and medical treatment. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings suggested that chylous ascites can potentially develop secondary to blunt abdominal trauma in ferrets. In this ferret, chyloabdomen was successfully treated with octreotide administration and abdominal drainage.

Evidence-Based Advances in Ferret Medicine

This literature review covers approximately 35 years of veterinary medicine. This article develops the current state of knowledge in pet ferret medicine regarding the most common diseases according to evidence-based data and gives insight into further axis of research. Literature review was conducted through identification of keywords (title + ferret) with Web-based database searching. To appreciate the methodological quality and the level of evidence of each article included in the review, full-text versions were reviewed and questions addressed in the articles were formulated. Analysis of the articles' content was performed by the authors, and relevant clinical information was extracted.

Collateral circulation in ferrets (Mustela putorius) during temporary occlusion of the caudal vena cava

OBJECTIVE To determine whether extent of collateral circulation would change during temporary occlusion of the caudal vena cava (CVC) in ferrets (Mustela putorius), a pressure change would occur caudal to the occlusion, and differences would exist between the sexes with respect to those changes. ANIMALS 8 adult ferrets (4 castrated males and 4 spayed females). PROCEDURES Ferrets were anesthetized. A balloon occlusion catheter was introduced through a jugular vein, passed into the CVC by use of fluoroscopy, positioned cranial to the right renal vein, and inflated for 20 minutes. Venography was performed 5 and 15 minutes after occlusion. Pressure in the CVC caudal to the occlusion was measured continuously. A CBC, plasma biochemical analysis, and urinalysis were performed immediately after the procedure and 2 or 3 days later. RESULTS All 8 ferrets survived the procedure; no differences were apparent between the sexes. Vessels providing collateral circulation were identified in all ferrets, indicating blood flow to the paravertebral venous plexus. Complications observed prior to occlusion included atrial and ventricular premature contractions. Complications after occlusion included bradycardia, seizures, and extravasation of contrast medium. Mean baseline CVC pressure was 5.4 cm H2O. During occlusion, 6 ferrets had a moderate increase in CVC pressure (mean, 24.3 cm H2O) and 2 ferrets had a marked increase in CVC pressure to > 55.0 cm H2O. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Caval occlusion for 20 minutes was performed in healthy ferrets with minimal adverse effects noted within the follow-up period and no apparent differences between sexes. The CVC pressure during occlusion may be prognostic in ferrets undergoing surgical ligation of the CVC, which commonly occurs during adrenal tumor resection.

Pyogranulomatous panophthalmitis with systemic coronavirus disease in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo)

A 15-month-old spayed female ferret (Mustela putorius furo) presented for lethargy and weight loss of 2 weeks duration. Upon physical examination, a 2-mm-diameter focal area of opacity was noted in the left cornea. In addition, the ferret was quiet, in poor body condition, and dehydrated. A complete blood count and plasma biochemistry revealed a severe nonregenerative anemia, azotemia, hyperproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, and mild hyperphosphatemia and hyperchloremia. Urinalysis revealed hyposthenuria. Whole body radiographs showed multifocal thoracic nodular disease, splenomegaly, and renomegaly. Abdominal ultrasonography confirmed bilaterally enlarged kidneys, hypoechoic liver and spleen, and a caudal abdominal hypoechoic mobile nodule. The ferret was humanely euthanized, and a postmortem examination with subsequent histopathology showed multifocal necrotizing pyogranulomas in the lung, spleen, kidneys, mesenteric lymph nodes, and serosa of the duodenum. Pyogranulomatous panophthalmitis was diagnosed in the left eye. The multisystemic granulomatous lesions were suggestive of ferret systemic coronavirus (FRSCV). The presence of coronavirus in the left eye was confirmed by positive immunohistochemistry. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissue from the lung, spleen, and kidney was negative for FRSCV and positive for ferret enteric coronavirus (FRECV). Systemic coronavirus disease in ferrets closely resembles feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) in domestic cats, which can manifest with anterior uveitis, chorioretinitis, optic neuritis, and retinal detachment. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of ocular lesions in a ferret with systemic coronavirus disease, suggesting that ferrets presented with similar ocular lesions should also be evaluated for evidence of coronavirus infection.

Biology and Diseases of Ferrets

Ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) belong to the ancient family Mustelidae, which is believed to date back to the Eocene period, some 40 million years ago. The taxonomic groups in the family Mustelidae, as recognized by Nowak (1999), include 67 species in 25 genera from North, Central, and South America; Eurasia; and Africa. No other carnivore shows such diversity of adaptation, being found in a wide variety of ecosystems ranging from arctic tundra to tropical rainforests. Mustelids have retained many primitive characteristics, which include relatively small size, short stocky legs, five toes per foot, elongated braincase, and short rostrum (Anderson, 1989). The Mustelinae is the central subfamily of the Mustelidae. The best-known members of the Mustelinae are the weasels, mink, ferrets (genus Mustela), and the martens (genus Martes) (Anderson, 1989). The genus Mustela is divided into five subgenera: Mustela (weasels), Lutreola (European mink), Vison (American mink), Putorius (ferrets), and Grammogale (South American weasels). The smallest member of the Mustelidae family is the least weasel (Mustela nivalis), which weighs as little as 25 g, and the largest member is the sea otter (Enhydra lutris), which can weigh as much as 45 kg (Nowak, 1999).

Diagnosis of liver disease in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius)

Liver disease in ferrets is often subclinical and underdiagnosed. Clinical pathology and diagnostic imaging are needed to guide clinicians but definite diagnosis is based on histopathologic lesions. Inflammatory digestive conditions can lead to ascending tract infection and hepatobiliary inflammation. Ferrets have a specific sensitivity to hepatic lipidosis. Incidence of hepatic neoplasia is high in ferrets. After a summary of anatomy and physiology of the ferret liver, hepatic diseases known in ferret species are reviewed with their subsequent diagnostic procedures.