Effects of ethanol on endocrine cells: testicular effects

In Vivo Attenuation of Alcohol- and Cadmium Chloride-Induced Testicular Toxicity Modulated by Silymarin in Male Wistar Rat

The aim of the study is to investigate the in vivo attenuation of alcohol- and cadmium chloride-induced testicular toxicity modulated by Silymarin in male Wistar rats. A total of fifty-six (56) Wistar rats were used for this study and they were randomized into seven (7) groups of eight (8) rats each. Group 1 was control rats; Groups 2-7 served as the experimental groups. After 6 weeks treatment duration, the rats were euthanized, semen was collected for semen analysis, blood samples for testosterone, and FSH and LH assay determination, and left testes was harvested for histological analysis. One-way ANOVA was used to compare means at p-level < 0.05 was considered significant. Findings from this study have shown that alcohol and cadmium chloride adversely affected semen parameters, testosterone, and FSH and LH hormone milieu. Data also showed that Silymarin administration attenuated the adverse effect of alcohol and cadmium chloride on semen quality and hormones associated with reproductive functions. Hence, Silymarin mopped the effect of in vivo attenuation of alcohol and cadmium chloride testicular damage. The findings of this study have further established that alcohol and cadmium chloride adversely affected semen parameters, testicular alterations, and serum hormonal milieu. However, the effect was more significantly deleterious in rats exposed to cadmium chloride when compared to rats exposed to alcohol, subsequently alcohol- and cadmium chloride-induced degeneration of testicular tissues. Furthermore, Silymarin administration attenuated the adverse effect of alcohol on semen quality and hormones associated with reproductive functions.

The impact of alcohol on the male reproductive system

Although alcohol has been consumed by humans for centuries, its effect on reproductive function is still not fully understood. Numerous studies have examined the effects of alcohol on ejaculate parameters and male fertility. This article provides an overview of the main preclinical and clinical studies. Studies in experimental animals have shown that ethanol-rich diets cause spermatogenesis abnormalities, a variety of abnormalities involving different parts of the reproductive tract, and a decreased frequency of fertilization in murine oocytes. These effects quickly disappeared with the cessation of alcohol use. Most of the studies examining the effects of alcohol on men have shown a negative effect on ejaculate parameters. An association of hypogonadism and low or elevated gonadotropin levels has been reported, suggesting a combined central and peripheral damaging effect of ethanol. Thus, alcohol consumption has a pronounced negative effect on ejaculate parameters, which can be reversible upon cessation of alcohol consumption.

Impact of environmental toxin exposure on male fertility potential

Idiopathic infertility is the most common individual diagnosis in male infertility, representing nearly 44% of cases. Research studies dating over the last half-century consistently demonstrate a decline in male fertility that is incompletely explained by obesity, known genetic causes, or diet and lifestyle changes alone. Human exposures have changed dramatically over the same time course as this fertility decline. Synthetic chemicals surround us. Some are benevolent; however, many are known to cause disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and impair spermatogenesis. More than 80,000 chemicals are registered with the United States National Toxicology Program and nearly 2,000 new chemicals are introduced each year. Many of these are known toxins, such as phthalates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and organophosphate esters, and have been banned or significantly restricted by other countries as they carry known carcinogenic effects and are reproductively toxic. In the United States, many of these chemicals are still permissible in exposure levels known to cause reproductive harm. This contrasts to other chemical regulatory legislature, such as the European Union’s REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals) regulations which are more comprehensive and restrictive. Quantification of these diverse exposures on an individual level has proven challenging, although forthcoming technologies may soon make this data available to consumers. Establishing causality and the proportion of idiopathic infertility attributable to environmental toxin exposures remains elusive, however, continued investigation, avoidance of exposure, and mitigation of risk is essential to our reproductive health. The aim of this review is to examine the literature linking changes in male fertility to some of the most common environmental exposures. Specifically, pesticides and herbicides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dibromochloropropane (DBCP), organophosphates and atrazine, endocrine disrupting compounds including plastic compounds phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), heavy metals, natural gas/oil, non-ionizing radiation, air and noise pollution, lifestyle factors including diet, obesity, caffeine use, smoking, alcohol and drug use, as well as commonly prescribed medications will be discussed.

The effect of red wine consumption on hormonal reproductive parameters and total antioxidant status in young adult male rats

Very little is known about the effects of red wine consumption on male reproductive functions. Here we report the effect of regular drinking of different types of red wine on hormonal reproductive parameters and total antioxidant status in young adult male rats. Dry red wine (D-RW) exerted higher antioxidant activity and was characterized by higher concentration of phenolic compounds compared to semi-dry (SD-RW), sweet (S-RW) and semi-sweet (SS-RW) wines. No differences in total antioxidant status of rat plasma after six weeks of drinking of the wines were detected. Increased plasma follicle-stimulating hormone levels in S-RW versus control and D-RW (5.26 vs. 3.06 and 3.21 ng mL(-1)) groups were found. The plasma testosterone concentration was lower in D-RW compared to control, SD-RW, S-RW and SS-RW groups (0.25 vs. 1.12, 1.09, 1.54 and 1.25 ng mL(-1)). Higher plasma 17β-estradiol level in S-RW versus SD-RW and SS-RW (10.94 vs. 7.18 and 6.72 pg mL(-1)) group was stated. The prolactin level was higher in plasma of S-RW versus D-RW and SS-RW (17.35 vs. 9.74 and 8.59 ng mL(-1)) rats. The effects of red wine drinking on the hormonal regulation of the male reproductive system depend on the type and the dose of red wine. Chemical compounds naturally occurring in red wines (i.e. phenolics) may modulate the effects of ethyl alcohol, but also directly affect the male reproduction.

Sex hormone activity in alcohol addiction: integrating organizational and activational effects

There are well-known sex differences in the epidemiology and etiopathology of alcohol dependence. Male gender is a crucial risk factor for the onset of alcohol addiction. A directly modifying role of testosterone in alcohol addiction-related behavior is well established. Sex hormones exert both permanent (organizational) and transient (activational) effects on the human brain. The sensitive period for these effects lasts throughout life. In this article, we present a novel early sex hormone activity model of alcohol addiction. We propose that early exposure to sex hormones triggers structural (organizational) neuroadaptations. These neuroadaptations affect cellular and behavioral responses to adult sex hormones, sensitize the brain's reward system to the reinforcing properties of alcohol and modulate alcohol addictive behavior later in life. This review outlines clinical findings related to the early sex hormone activity model of alcohol addiction (handedness, the second-to-fourth-finger length ratio, and the androgen receptor and aromatase) and includes clinical and preclinical literature regarding the activational effects of sex hormones in alcohol drinking behavior. Furthermore, we discuss the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and -gonadal axes and the opioid system in mediating the relationship between sex hormone activity and alcohol dependence. We conclude that a combination of exposure to sex hormones in utero and during early development contributes to the risk of alcohol addiction later in life. The early sex hormone activity model of alcohol addiction may prove to be a valuable tool in the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies.

Effect of chronic alcoholism on male fertility hormones and semen quality

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of chronic alcoholism on the male fertility hormones and quality of semen.

DESIGN

Non-probability purposive clinical study.

SETTING

Addiction treatment center and an academic research environment.

PATIENT(S)

Sixty-six alcoholics free from smoking and drug abuse who consumed a minimum of 180 mL of alcohol per day (brandy and whisky, both 40%-50% alcohol content) for a minimum of 5 days per week for > or =1 year were included. Thirty nonsmoking nonalcoholics were selected as controls.

INTERVENTION(S)

Before starting the addiction treatment for alcoholics, venous blood and semen samples were collected.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Complete blood counts, biochemical parameters, levels of the male fertility hormones FSH, LH, T, PRL, P, and E2 in blood, and semen parameters.

RESULT(S)

In alcoholics, FSH, LH, and E2 levels were significantly increased, and T and P levels were significantly decreased. No significant change was noted in PRL levels. Semen volume, sperm count, motility, and number of morphologically normal sperm were significantly decreased.

CONCLUSION(S)

Chronic alcohol consumption has a detrimental effect on male reproductive hormones and on semen quality.

Hepatic estrogen receptors and alcohol intake

Human liver contains estrogen receptors (ER) which render it sensitive to estrogen. Chronic ethanol ingestion in humans and rats results in alterations of circulating sex steroid levels and expression of sex hormone-dependent phenotype. The analysis and quantitation of hepatic estrogen receptor (ER) activity and sex hormone-responsive proteins have been performed over the past two decades. Alcohol abuse appears to induce an increase in ER content of human liver, especially in patients with alcoholic hepatitis actively drinking. This observation is reproduced in an experimental model of chronic alcohol feeding of rats. In male rat liver, the increased ER expression induced by alcohol is associated with an elevated proliferation rate of the hepatocytes. In female liver, the ER content is not affected by alcohol intake and apoptosis prevails over proliferation. The feminization of the liver in males may protect the liver from the severe alcohol-induced liver injury seen in females.

Downregulation of nuclear sex steroid receptor activity correlates with severity of alcoholic liver injury

Chronic ethanol ingestion in rats and humans results in significant alterations in sex steroid levels and expression of sex hormone-dependent phenotype. In this study, we used the intragastric feeding model in male rats to determine hepatic sex hormone receptor activity under circumstances of chronic ethanol exposure and differing degrees of liver injury induced by type of dietary fat. Pathological analysis and quantitation of hepatic androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor (ER) activity, serum sex hormones, and sex hormone-responsive protein and mRNA expression were performed. The activity of the physiologically relevant nuclear form of both AR and ER was significantly decreased with ethanol and correlated inversely with the severity of liver injury. Serum testosterone levels, as well as expression of an androgen-dependent hepatic mRNA, were decreased by ethanol and progressive liver injury. Serum estradiol increased with liver injury. We postulate that these changes in receptor activity may be due to the oxidative stress, reduced cellular energy, and/or altered cytokine milieu known to occur in this model.

Dose and time dependent effects of ethanol on antioxidant system in rat testes

This study was designed to investigate the dose as well as time dependent effects of ethanol on testicular antioxidant defense system in rats. Male Fischer 344 rats were administered ethanol at a dose of 2, 4, and 6 gm/kg orally and control received equal volume of saline and sacrificed 1 h after ethanol ingestion. For time course study, animals were administered ethanol 4 g/kg orally and sacrificed at 1.5, 2, 4, and 6 h after ethanol ingestion. Testicular ethanol concentration increased with increasing doses of ethanol. Copper zinc-superoxide dismutase (CuZn-SOD) activity significantly decreased in the testes of rats treated with increasing doses of ethanol whereas manganese-superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD) activity significantly increased in a dose dependent manner (181, 186, and 195% of control, respectively). Testicular glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels did not significantly alter with increasing doses of ethanol one hour after ethanol ingestion. Ethanol concentration decreased in the testes with an increase in time after ethanol ingestion. Testicular CuZn-SOD activity significantly decreased whereas Mn-SOD activity increased with an increase in time after ethanol ingestion. Testicular catalase (CAT) activity significantly decreased at 2 h postethanol ingestion. Testicular MDA levels significantly increased at 4 and 6 h after ethanol ingestion indicating that end product of lipid peroxidation. MDA, takes considerable time to form in the testes. A significant decrease in the ratios of CAT/Mn-SOD and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)/Mn-SOD in the testes of rat suggests the ability of mitochondria to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). It is suggested that antioxidant enzyme ratios may be used as an important parameter to determine ethanol induced oxidative stress in the tissues.