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Aloise DDA, Coura-Vital W, Carneiro M, Rodrigues MV, Toscano GADS, da Silva RB, Silva-Portela RDCB, Fontes-Dantas FL, Agnez-Lima LF, Vitor RWA, Andrade-Neto VFD. Association between ocular toxoplasmosis and APEX1 and MYD88 polymorphism. Acta Trop 2021; 221:106006. [PMID: 34118207 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.106006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Ocular toxoplasmosis (OT) is the most common form of posterior uveitis, and in some countries, it is the most frequent cause of visual impairment. Studies demonstrate that the polymorphism in genes involved with the immune response can be related both to the occurrence and to the recurrence of OT. Thus, the present study aimed to analyze the association between OT and the polymorphism of the APEX1 (rs1130409) and MyD88 (rs7744) genes. The studied sample consisted of 48 volunteers with OT and 96 asymptomatic volunteers, but positive for anti - T. gondii IgG (control group). Blood collection was performed for serological analysis (ELISA) and DNA extraction. Genotyping of the polymorphism was performed using real-time PCR. To analyze the association between gene polymorphism and OT, logistic regression was performed. The results showed no association between the MYD88 gene polymorphism and the development of OT. However, a significant association was found between OT and APEX1 gene polymorphism, indicating that individuals expressing polymorphic (GG) or heterozygous (GT) alleles are more likely to develop the disease (P-value = 0.02 and 0.03 respectively). These results suggest that APEX1 (rs1130409) polymorphism is a risk factor for the occurrence of ocular toxoplasmosis in the studied population.
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Heisel C, Yousif J, Mijiti M, Charizanis K, Brigell M, Corson TW, Kelley MR. APE1/Ref-1 as a Novel Target for Retinal Diseases. JOURNAL OF CELLULAR SIGNALING 2021; 2:133-138. [PMID: 34322687 PMCID: PMC8315574 DOI: 10.33696/signaling.2.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
APE1/Ref-1 (also called Ref-1) has been extensively studied for its role in DNA repair and reduction-oxidation (redox) signaling. The review titled: “The multifunctional APE1 DNA repair-redox signaling protein as a drug target in human disease” by Caston et. al. summarizes the molecular functions of Ref-1 and the role it plays in a number of diseases, with a specific focus on various types of cancer [1]. Previous studies have demonstrated that Ref-1 plays a critical role in regulating specific transcription factors (TFs) involved in a number of pathways, not only in cancer, but other disease indications as well. Disease indications of particular therapeutic interest include retinal vascular diseases such as diabetic retinopathy (DR), diabetic macular edema (DME), and neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nvAMD). While Ref-1 controls a number of TFs that are under redox regulation, three have been found to directly link cancer studies to retinal diseases; HIF-1α, NF-κB and STAT3. HIF-1α controls the expression of VEGF for angiogenesis while NF-κB and STAT3 regulate a number of known cytokines and factors involved in inflammation. These pathways are highly implicated and validated as major players in DR, DME and AMD. Therefore, findings in cancer studies for Ref-1 and its inhibition may be translated to these ocular diseases. This report discusses the path from cancer to the potential treatment of retinal disease, the Ref-1 redox signaling function as a possible target, and the current small molecules which have been identified to block this activity. One molecule, APX3330, is in clinical trials, while the others are in preclinical development. Inhibition of Ref-1 and its effects on inflammation and angiogenesis makes it a potential new therapeutic target for the treatment of retinal vascular diseases. This commentary summarizes the retinal-relevant research that built on the results summarized in the review by Caston et. al. [1].
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Affiliation(s)
- Curtis Heisel
- University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Jonah Yousif
- University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Mahmut Mijiti
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | | | | | - Timothy W Corson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Indiana University Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Eugene and Marilyn Glick Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Mark R Kelley
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Indiana University Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.,Eugene and Marilyn Glick Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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Thakur S, Sarkar B, Cholia RP, Gautam N, Dhiman M, Mantha AK. APE1/Ref-1 as an emerging therapeutic target for various human diseases: phytochemical modulation of its functions. Exp Mol Med 2014; 46:e106. [PMID: 25033834 PMCID: PMC4119211 DOI: 10.1038/emm.2014.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) is a multifunctional enzyme involved in the base excision repair (BER) pathway, which repairs oxidative base damage caused by endogenous and exogenous agents. APE1 acts as a reductive activator of many transcription factors (TFs) and has also been named redox effector factor 1, Ref-1. For example, APE1 activates activator protein-1, nuclear factor kappa B, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, paired box gene 8, signal transducer activator of transcription 3 and p53, which are involved in apoptosis, inflammation, angiogenesis and survival pathways. APE1/Ref-1 maintains cellular homeostasis (redox) via the activation of TFs that regulate various physiological processes and that crosstalk with redox balancing agents (for example, thioredoxin, catalase and superoxide dismutase) by controlling levels of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. The efficiency of APE1/Ref-1's function(s) depends on pairwise interaction with participant protein(s), the functions regulated by APE1/Ref-1 include the BER pathway, TFs, energy metabolism, cytoskeletal elements and stress-dependent responses. Thus, APE1/Ref-1 acts as a ‘hub-protein' that controls pathways that are important for cell survival. In this review, we will discuss APE1/Ref-1's versatile nature in various human etiologies, including neurodegeneration, cancer, cardiovascular and other diseases that have been linked with alterations in the expression, subcellular localization and activities of APE/Ref-1. APE1/Ref-1 can be targeted for therapeutic intervention using natural plant products that modulate the expression and functions of APE1/Ref-1. In addition, studies focusing on translational applications based on APE1/Ref-1-mediated therapeutic interventions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Thakur
- Center for Biosciences, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Punjab, India
| | - Bibekananda Sarkar
- Center for Biosciences, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Punjab, India
| | - Ravi P Cholia
- Center for Biosciences, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Punjab, India
| | - Nandini Gautam
- Center for Environmental Science and Technology, School of Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Punjab, India
| | - Monisha Dhiman
- Center for Genetic Diseases and Molecular Medicine, School of Emerging Life Science Technologies, Central University of Punjab, Punjab, India
| | - Anil K Mantha
- 1] Center for Biosciences, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Punjab, India [2] Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
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Li Y, Liu X, Zhou T, Kelley MR, Edwards P, Gao H, Qiao X. Inhibition of APE1/Ref-1 redox activity rescues human retinal pigment epithelial cells from oxidative stress and reduces choroidal neovascularization. Redox Biol 2014; 2:485-94. [PMID: 24624338 PMCID: PMC3949093 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2014.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The effectiveness of current treatment for age related macular degeneration (AMD) by targeting one molecule is limited due to its multifactorial nature and heterogeneous pathologies. Treatment strategy to target multiple signaling pathways or pathological components in AMD pathogenesis is under investigation for better clinical outcome. Inhibition of the redox function of apurinic endonuclease 1/redox factor-1 (APE1) was found to suppress endothelial angiogenesis and promote neuronal cell recovery, thereby may serve as a potential treatment for AMD. In the current study, we for the first time have found that a specific inhibitor of APE1 redox function by a small molecule compound E3330 regulates retinal pigment epithelium (RPEs) cell response to oxidative stress. E3330 significantly blocked sub-lethal doses of oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) induced proliferation decline and senescence advancement of RPEs. At the same time, E3330 remarkably decreased the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and down-regulated the productions of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), as well as attenuated the level of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 in RPEs. A panel of stress and toxicity responsive transcription factors that were significantly upregulated by oxLDL was restored by E3330, including Nrf2/Nrf1, p53, NF-κB, HIF1, CBF/NF-Y/YY1, and MTF-1. Further, a single intravitreal injection of E3330 effectively reduced the progression of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in mouse eyes. These data revealed that E3330 effectively rescued RPEs from oxidative stress induced senescence and dysfunctions in multiple aspects in vitro, and attenuated laser-induced damages to RPE–Bruch׳s membrane complex in vivo. Together with its previously established anti-angiogenic and neuroprotection benefits, E3330 is implicated for potential use for AMD treatment. Specific inhibition of APE1/Ref-1 redox function with E3330 blocked RPE proliferation decline and senescence-like phenotype advancement induced by oxLDL. E3330 suppressed intracellular ROS, down-regulated the MCP-1 and VEGF production, and reduced nuclear NF-κB p65 in RPEs. E3330 repressed the redox sensitive transcription factors Nrf2/Nrf1, p53, NF-κB, HIF1, CBF/NF-Y/YY1, and MTF-1 that stimulated by oxLDL in RPEs. Intravitreal injection of E3330 markedly reduced the laser-induced CNV in mouse eyes. E3330 holds great potential for the management of AMD.
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Key Words
- AMD, age related macular degeneration
- AP-1, activator protein 1
- APE1, apurinic endonuclease 1/redox factor-1
- APE1/Ref-1redox function
- Age-related macular degeneration.
- AhR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor
- ApoE, apolipoprotein E
- CBF/NF-Y/YY1, CCAAT binding factor/nuclear factor-Y/Yin Yang 1
- CECs, choroidal endothelial cells
- CNV, choroidal neovascularization
- DCFH-DA, dichlorodihydrofluorescin diacetate
- DMSO, dimethylsulphoxide
- E3330
- Fluc, firefly luciferase
- HIF-1α, hypoxia inducible factor-1α
- HSF1, heat-shock factor 1
- IκB-α, inhibitory NF-κB-α
- MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
- MTF1, metal regulatory transcription factor 1
- NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB
- Nox, NADPH oxidase
- Nrf, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor
- Oxidative stress
- RNV, retinal neovascularization
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- RPE, retinal pigment epithelium
- RVECs, retinal vascular endothelial cells
- Retinal pigment epithelial cell
- Rluc, renilla luciferase
- SA-β-gal, senescence associated β-gal
- SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
- TUNEL, TdT mediated dUTP-fluorescein nick end-labeling
- Transcription factor
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- oxLDL, oxidized low density lipoprotein
- redox, reduction/oxidation
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Henry Ford Health System, 1 Ford Place 5D, Detroit, MI, United States ; Department of Ophthalmology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi׳an, Shanxi, People׳s Republic of China
| | - X Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Henry Ford Health System, 1 Ford Place 5D, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - T Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Henry Ford Health System, 1 Ford Place 5D, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - M R Kelley
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - P Edwards
- Department of Ophthalmology, Henry Ford Health System, 1 Ford Place 5D, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - H Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Henry Ford Health System, 1 Ford Place 5D, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - X Qiao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Henry Ford Health System, 1 Ford Place 5D, Detroit, MI, United States
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Jiang A, Gao H, Kelley MR, Qiao X. Inhibition of APE1/Ref-1 redox activity with APX3330 blocks retinal angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Vision Res 2010; 51:93-100. [PMID: 20937296 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2010] [Revised: 10/01/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study examines the role of APE1/Ref-1 in the retina and its potential as a therapeutic target for inhibiting retinal angiogenesis. APE1/Ref-1 expression was quantified by Western blot. The role of APE1/Ref-1 redox function in endothelial cell in vitro angiogenesis was examined by treating retinal vascular endothelial cells (RVECs) with APX3330, a small molecule inhibitor of APE1/Ref-1 redox activity. In vitro methods included a proliferation assay, a transwell migration assay, a Matrigel tube formation assay, and a Real-Time Cell Analysis (RTCA) using the xCELLigence System. In vivo functional studies of APE1/Ref-1 were carried out by treating very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) receptor knockout mice (Vldlr(-/-)) with intravitreal injection of APX3330, and subsequent measurement of retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP)-like neovascularization for one week. APE1/Ref-1 was highly expressed in the retina and in RVECs and pericytes in mice. APX3330 (1-10 μM) inhibited proliferation, migration and tube formation of RVECs in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. Vldlr(-/-) RVECs were more sensitive to APX3330 than wild-type RVECs. In Vldlr(-/-) mice, a single intravitreal injection of APX3330 at the onset of RAP-like neovascularization significantly reduced RAP-like neovascularization development. APE1/Ref-1 is expressed in retinal vascular cells. APX3330 inhibits RVEC angiogenesis in vitro and significantly reduces RAP-like neovascularization in Vldlr(-/-) mice. These data support the conclusion that APE1/Ref-1 redox function is required for retinal angiogenesis. Thus, APE1/Ref-1 may have potential as a therapeutic target for treating neovascular age-related macular degeneration and other neovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aihua Jiang
- Cardiovascular Institute, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 3 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA 02215, United States
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Gurusamy N, Mukherjee S, Lekli I, Bearzi C, Bardelli S, Das DK. Inhibition of ref-1 stimulates the production of reactive oxygen species and induces differentiation in adult cardiac stem cells. Antioxid Redox Signal 2009; 11:589-600. [PMID: 18717627 PMCID: PMC2933566 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2008.2195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Redox effector protein-1 (Ref-1) plays an essential role in DNA repair and redox regulation of several transcription factors. In the present study, we examined the role of Ref-1 in maintaining the redox status and survivability of adult cardiac stem cells challenged with a subtoxic level of H2O2 under inhibition of Ref-1 by RNA interference. Treatment of cardiac stem cells with a low concentration of H2O2 induced Ref-1-mediated survival signaling through phosphorylation of Akt. However, Ref-1 inhibition followed by H2O2 treatment extensively induced the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) through activation of the components of NADPH oxidase, like p22( phox ), p47( phox ), and Nox4. Cardiac differentiation markers (Nkx2.5, MEF2C, and GATA4), and cell death by apoptosis were significantly elevated in Ref-1 siRNA followed by H2O2-treated stem cells. Further, inhibition of Ref-1 increased the level of p53 but decreased the phosphorylation of Akt, a molecule involved in survival signaling. Treatment with ROS scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine attenuated Ref-1 siRNA-mediated activation of NADPH oxidase and cardiac differentiation. Taken together, these results indicate that Ref-1 plays an important role in maintaining the redox status of cardiac stem cells and protects them from oxidative injury-mediated cell death and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narasimman Gurusamy
- Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-1110, USA
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Angkeow P, Deshpande SS, Qi B, Liu YX, Park YC, Jeon BH, Ozaki M, Irani K. Redox factor-1: an extra-nuclear role in the regulation of endothelial oxidative stress and apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 2002; 9:717-25. [PMID: 12058277 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2001] [Revised: 01/05/2002] [Accepted: 01/12/2002] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The rac1 GTPase promotes oxidative stress through reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, whereas the DNA repair enzyme and transcriptional regulator redox factor-1 (ref-1) protects against cell death due to oxidative stimuli. However, the function of ref-1 in regulating intracellular oxidative stress, particularly that induced by rac1, has not been defined. We examined the role of ref-1 in vascular endothelial cell oxidative stress and apoptosis. Ref-1 was expressed in both the cytoplasm and nuclei of resting endothelial cells. Cytoplasmic ref-1 translocated to the nucleus with the oxidative trigger hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). Forced cytoplasmic overexpression of ref-1 suppressed H/R-induced oxidative stress (H(2)O(2) production), NF-kappaB activation, and apoptosis, and also mitigated rac1-regulated H(2)O(2) production and NF-kappaB transcriptional activity. We conclude that inhibition of oxidative stress is another mechanism by which ref-1 protects against apoptosis, and that this is achieved through modulation of cytoplasmic rac1-regulated ROS generation. This suggests a novel extra-nuclear function of ref-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Angkeow
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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