Enhancement of neuronal nicotinic receptor activity of rat chromaffin cells by a novel class of peptides

Neuropeptides, neurogenic inflammation and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS)

This review explains symptoms and nature of neuropeptide signaling and its importance for clinical symptoms of CRPS. Neurogenic inflammation regularly accompanies excitation of primary afferent nociceptors. It has two major components-plasma extravasation and vasodilatation. The most important mediators are the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and substance P (SP). After peripheral trauma immune reaction (e.g. cytokines) and the attempts of the tissue to regenerate (e.g. growth factors) sensitize nociceptors and amplify neurogenic inflammation. This cascade of events has been demonstrated in rat models of CRPS. Clinical findings in these animals strongly resemble clinical findings in CRPS, and can be prevented by anti-cytokine and anti-neuropeptide treatment. In CRPS patients, there is meanwhile also plenty of evidence that neurogenic inflammation contributes to clinical presentation. Increased cytokine production was demonstrated, as well as facilitated neurogenic inflammation. Very recently even "non-inflammatory" signs of CRPS (hyperhidrosis, cold skin) have been linked to neuropeptide signaling. Surprisingly, there was even moderately increased neurogenic inflammation in unaffected body regions. This favors the possibility that CRPS patients share genetic similarities. The future search for genetic commonalities will help us to further unravel the "mystery" CRPS.

Peripheral amplification of sweating--a role for calcitonin gene-related peptide

Neuropeptides are the mediators of neurogenic inflammation. Some pain disorders, e.g. complex regional pain syndromes, are characterized by increased neurogenic inflammation and by exaggerated sudomotor function. The aim of this study was to explore whether neuropeptides have a peripheral effect on human sweating. We investigated the effects of different concentrations of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and substance P (SP) on acetylcholine-induced axon reflex sweating in healthy subjects (total n = 18). All substances were applied via dermal microdialysis. The experiments were done in a parallel setting: ACh alone and ACh combined with CGRP, VIP or SP in various concentrations were applied. Acetylcholine (10(-2) m) always elicited a sweating response, neuropeptides alone did not. However, CGRP significantly enhanced ACh-induced sweating (P < 0.01). Post hoc tests revealed that CGRP in physiological concentrations of 10(-7)-10(-9) m was most effective. VIP at any concentration had no significant effect on axon reflex sweating. The duration of the sweating response (P < 0.01), but not the amount of sweat, was reduced by SP. ACh-induced skin blood flow was significantly increased by CGRP (P < 0.01), but unaltered by VIP and SP. The results indicate that CGRP amplifies axon reflex sweating in human skin.

Impaired and spared cholinergic functions in the hippocampus after lesions of the medial septum/vertical limb of the diagonal band with 192 IgG-saporin

To lesion the cholinergic input to the hippocampus, rats received injections of 192 IgG-saporin into the medial septum/vertical limb of the diagonal band (MS/VDB). The lesions produced near-total loss of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-positive neurons in the MS/VDB. The loss was accompanied, however, by only partial decreases (to 40% of control levels) in acetylcholine (ACh) release in the hippocampus. Moreover, ACh release in the hippocampus increased when lesioned and control rats were tested on a spontaneous alternation task, indicating that there was significant residual cholinergic function in the hippocampus. The lesions were sufficient to impair spontaneous alternation scores. However, this impairment could be reversed by either systemic or intra-hippocampal injections of the indirect cholinergic agonist, physostigmine, providing additional evidence of residual and effective cholinergic functions in the hippocampus of lesioned rats. Moreover, systemic injections of physostigmine at doses that produced mild tremors in control rats led to more severe tremors in the lesioned rats, suggesting upregulation of cholinergic mechanisms after saporin lesions, likely in brain areas other than the hippocampus. Thus, these findings provide evidence for decreases in cholinergic input to the hippocampus accompanied by deficits on a spontaneous alternation tasks. The findings also provide evidence for considerable residual cholinergic input to the hippocampus after saporin lesions of the MS/VDB. Together, the results suggest that 192 IgG-saporin lesions of the MS/VDB, using methods often employed, do not fully remove septohippocampal cholinergic input to the hippocampus but are nonetheless sufficient to produce impairments on a task impaired by hippocampal lesions.

Loss of alpha CGRP reduces sound-evoked activity in the cochlear nerve

alpha-Calcitonin gene-related peptide (alphaCGRP) is one of several neurotransmitters immunolocalized in the unmyelinated component of the cochlear efferent innervation, the lateral olivocochlear (OC) system, which makes axo-dendritic synapses with cochlear sensory neurons. In rodents, CGRP is also immunocolocalized in the myelinated medial OC system, which contacts cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs). To understand the role(s) of this neuropeptide in the OC system, we characterized the auditory phenotype of alphaCGRP-null mice. Cochlear threshold sensitivity was normal in mutant mice, both via a neural metric, the auditory brain stem response (ABR), and an OHC-based metric, distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs). Medial OC function and resistance to acoustic injury were also unaffected by alphaCGRP deletion: the former was assessed by measuring cochlear response suppression with electrical stimulation of the OC bundle, the latter by measuring temporary threshold shifts after exposure to high level sound. However, significant abnormality in alphaCGRP-null mice was seen in the growth of cochlear neural responses with increasing stimulus level. This observation, contrasted with normal amplitude-versus-level functions for DPOAEs, is consistent with a selective, postsynaptic effect on cochlear neurons via alphaCGRP release from lateral OC terminals. This constitutes the most direct evidence to date for a functional role of the lateral OC system in the auditory periphery.

Modulation of neuronal nicotinic receptor function by the neuropeptides CGRP and substance P on autonomic nerve cells

1. One classical example of how neuropeptides can affect the function of ligand-gated receptors is the modulation of neuronal nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) by substance P. The present review updates current understanding of this action by substance P and compares it with other neuropeptides more recently found to modulate nAChRs in the autonomic nervous system. 2. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and its N-terminal fragments have been shown to exert complex inhibitory as well facilitatory actions on nAChRs. Fragments such as CGRP(1-4), CGRP(1-5) and CGRP(1-6) rapidly and reversibly enhance agonist sensitivity of nAChRs without directly activating those receptors. Longer fragments or the full-length peptide potently inhibit responses mediated by nAChRs via an apparently competitive-type antagonism. This phenomenon differs from the substance P-induced block, which is agonist use-dependent and preferential towards large nicotinic responses. 3. It is argued that the full-length peptides CGRP and substance P might play distinct roles in the activity-dependent modulation of cholinergic neurotransmission, by inhibiting background noise in the case of CGRP or by reducing excessive excitation in the case of substance P. Hence, multiple neuropeptide mechanisms may represent a wide array of fine-tuning processes to regulate nicotinic synaptic transmission. 4. The availability of novel CGRP derivatives with a strong enhancing action on nAChRs may offer new leads for the drug design targeted for potentiation of nAChRs in the autonomic nervous system as well as in the brain, a subject of interest to counteract the deficit of the nAChR function associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.