Necrotising ventriculitis due to combined infection with Rhizopus microsporus var. chinensis and Candida krusei in an eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus)

Disseminated Mucor indicus infection in a marmoset (Callithrix sp.)

Mucormycosis is rarely described in Platyrrhines. Herein, we describe the pathologic and molecular features of a gastric and hepatic infection by Mucor indicus in a marmoset (Callithrix sp.).

Atypical Mycosis in Psittacine Birds: A Retrospective Study

A retrospective study was conducted on parrots submitted from necropsy to the Department of Veterinary Pathology, School of Biosciences and Veterinary, University of Camerino, Italy, from 2007 to 2018. From a total of 2,153 parrots examined at post-mortem, four cases were diagnosed with atypical mycosis and were considered for determination of the fungus species by PCR. A Fischer's lovebird (Agapornis fischeri), Peach-faced lovebirds (Agapornis roseicollis), and two Blue and Gold Macaws (Ara ararauna) from four different aviaries died after some days of lethargy and ruffled feathers. Records of gross necropsy and histopathological exams (H&E, PAS, and Grocott stain) were described and biomolecular analyses were carried out. No specific gross lesions were appreciated at necropsy, while histopathology evidenced a systemic mycosis in several organs, particularly in the lungs. In affected organs, broad and non-septate hyphae, suggestive of mycoses, were observed. Molecularly, Mucor racemosus (Fischer's lovebird) and M. circinelloides (Peach-faced lovebirds) were identified from formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) lung and liver tissue. In addition, Alternaria alternata and Fusicladium spp. (respectively in male and female Blue and Gold macaws) were identified in FFPE tissue from several organs; whereas the role of Mucor spp. as true pathogens is well-demonstrated, and the behavior of A. alternata and Fusicladium spp. in macaws as opportunistic pathogens have been discussed. To our knowledge, this report is the first one reporting mucormycosis caused by M. racemosus and M. circinelloides in lovebirds, and A. alternata and Fusicladium spp. in macaws.

Diagnosis and treatment of Candida glabrata proventriculitis in an eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus)

CASE DESCRIPTION

An 8-year-old sexually intact female eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) with a 4-day history of hyporexia and lethargy and a 1-day history of tenesmus was examined.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

Severe leukocytosis characterized by severe heterophilia and moderate monocytosis was present. Marked dilation of the proventriculus and ventriculus and ascites were identified by means of radiography, coelomic ultrasonography, and contrast-enhanced CT, with no clinically relevant motility noted on ultrasonography. Results of coelomic fluid analysis were consistent with pyogranulomatous effusion. Endoscopy of the upper gastrointestinal tract following proventricular and ventricular lavage showed a thick caseous plaque occupying 30% of the caudal proventricular mucosa. Abundant yeast organisms were evident during cytologic examination of a proventricular and ventricular wash sample, and fecal culture yielded Candida glabrata.

TREATMENT AND OUTCOME

The bird was treated with SC fluids, assisted feedings, nystatin, fluconazole, amoxicillin–clavulanic acid, enrofloxacin, gastroprotectants, maropitant, and analgesics and slowly improved during hospitalization. A marked decrease in proventricular dilation was evident on serial radiographs obtained over a 12-month period. One year after diagnosis, the bird was presented with a 1-week history of hyporexia and lethargy, and fecal culture grew C glabrata. Antifungal treatment was resumed for 3 months. The bird had no clinical signs of infection 16 months after this recurrence, and subsequent fecal cultures were negative for fungal growth.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Findings illustrate the importance of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in diagnosing proventricular and ventricular dilation in birds and emphasize the need for long-term antifungal treatment and monitoring in birds with fungal infections.

A global view on fungal infections in humans and animals: opportunistic infections and microsporidioses

After cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases are the second most common cause of death worldwide. Although these infections are caused mainly by viruses or bacteria, a systematically growing prevalence of human and animal opportunistic fungal infections is noticeable worldwide. More attention is being paid to this problem, especially due to the growing frequency of recalcitrant and recurrent mycoses. The latter are classically divided into superficial, which are the most common type, subcutaneous, and systemic. This work discusses opportunistic fungal pathogens without proven horizontal transmission between different animal species including humans and microsporidia as spore-forming unicellular parasites related to fungi; however, with a yet undetermined taxonomic position. The review also mentions aetiological agents, risk factors, epidemiology, geographical distribution, and finally symptoms characteristic for individual disease entities. This paper provides insight into fungal infections from a global perspective and simultaneously draws attention to emerging pathogens, whose prevalence is continuously increasing. Finally, this work also takes into consideration the correct nomenclature of fungal disease entities and the importance of secondary metabolites in the pathogenesis of fungal infections.

Systemic mucormycosis caused by Rhizopus microsporus in a captive bottlenose dolphin

A 6‐year‐old female bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) kept in dolphinarium died after a 3.5‐month period of lethargy and inappetence despite antibiotics and supportive care. At necropsy, gross findings included diffuse varying‐sized nodules in the lungs and scattered nodules throughout the heart, spleen, mesenteric and hilar lymph node and kidney. Microscopically, the lesions were characterised by disseminated fungal pyogranulomas with numerous intralesional Mucor‐like fungi. The fungi structures were demonstrated by Periodic acid‐Schiff and Gomori methenamine silver stain. Molecular analyses of the fungi were Rhizopus microsporus by PCR sequencing 18S ribosomal RNA gene. Ziehl–Neelsen stain failed to show acid‐fast bacterial infection. Based on pathological and molecular examination, systemic granulomatous mucormycosis was diagnosed. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of systemic mucormycosis caused by Rhizopus microsporus in bottlenose dolphin.

Current Aspects in the Biology, Pathogeny, and Treatment of Candida krusei, a Neglected Fungal Pathogen

Fungal infections represent a constant and growing menace to human health, because of the emergence of new species as causative agents of diseases and the increment of antifungal drug resistance. Candidiasis is one of the most common fungal infections in humans and is associated with a high mortality rate when the fungi infect deep-seated organs. Candida krusei belongs to the group of candidiasis etiological agents, and although it is not isolated as frequently as other Candida species, the infections caused by this organism are of special relevance in the clinical setting because of its intrinsic resistance to fluconazole. Here, we offer a thorough revision of the current literature dealing with this organism and the caused disease, focusing on its biological aspects, the host-fungus interaction, the diagnosis, and the infection treatment. Of particular relevance, we provide the most recent genomic information, including the gene prediction of some putative virulence factors, like proteases, adhesins, regulators of biofilm formation and dimorphism. Moreover, C. krusei veterinary aspects and the exploration of natural products with anti-C. krusei activity are also included.

Gastrointestinal Disease Associated with Non-albicans Candida Species in Six Birds

A non-albicans Candida species was identified in 6 birds exhibiting clinical signs associated with gastrointestinal disease. The clinical disease signs noted in these 6 birds included diarrhea, regurgitation, and melena, and were considered concurrent or identified secondary to other comorbidities. Candida glabrata was identified in a yellow-naped Amazon parrot (Amazona auropalliata), a ring-necked dove (Streptopelia capicola), a blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna), and 2 cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). Candida krusei was identified in a white-crowned parrot (Pionus senilis). Fungal culture and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry identification was correlated with results of fecal and/or crop Gram's stains, and DNA sequencing was used in one case. Three cases resolved after treatment, 2 birds died, and 1 was lost to follow-up. Non-albicans Candida infections are an emerging issue in human health care and are known to have an increased resistance to antifungal drugs. Similar to Candida albicans, these non-albicans Candida species are often identified in patients that have a history of prior antibiotic exposure. Recent data in human medicine describe a shift in species distribution away from C albicans dominance and toward other species, including C glabrata and C krusei. Both species are considered normal flora within the human and bird mycobiota and may emerge to cause disease, especially when the normal gastrointestinal environment has been disrupted.

Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations

The importance of fungal infections in both human and animals has increased over the last decades. This article represents an overview of the different categories of fungal infections that can be encountered in animals originating from environmental sources without transmission to humans. In addition, the endemic infections with indirect transmission from the environment, the zoophilic fungal pathogens with near-direct transmission, the zoonotic fungi that can be directly transmitted from animals to humans, mycotoxicoses and antifungal resistance in animals will also be discussed. Opportunistic mycoses are responsible for a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, such as aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and infections caused by melanized fungi. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal pathogens. Zoonotic agents are naturally transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans and vice versa. The list of zoonotic fungal agents is limited but some species, like Microsporum canis and Sporothrix brasiliensis from cats, have a strong public health impact. Mycotoxins are defined as the chemicals of fungal origin being toxic for warm-blooded vertebrates. Intoxications by aflatoxins and ochratoxins represent a threat for both human and animal health. Resistance to antifungals can occur in different animal species that receive these drugs, although the true epidemiology of resistance in animals is unknown, and options to treat infections caused by resistant infections are limited.

Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS) induced by Candida krusei in an Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea) and confirmed by electron microscopy analysis

A young female Aldabra giant tortoise (Adabrachelys gigantea) was presented with anorexia, ataxia, severe constipation and bloating. Analysis revealed liver disease and collected biopsy diagnosed Candida krusei infection. Despite Itraconazole treatment, the tortoise got worse and died. Full necropsy was performed; microbiology showed Candida krusei presence in liver, but histopathology didn’t confirm fungal presence with special stains, so scanning electron microscopy was essential to prove a detailed diagnosis of extensive mycosis.

Incidência de Candida spp. segundo a sazonalidade em excretas de aves silvestres e exóticas cativas analisadas no Laboratório ADN/Poços de Caldas-MG, Brasil (2010-2014)

RESUMO: Candidíase é a doença causada pelas leveduras do gênero Candida spp., agindo tanto como agentes primários ou secundários de doenças importantes em aves e humanos. O presente estudo teve por objetivo estudar as 599 amostras com pedido de diagnóstico para Candida spp. em um laboratório diagnóstico comercial na cidade de Poços de Caldas, MG-Brasil, no período de 2010 à 2014, levando em consideração a sazonalidade (verão, outono, inverno e primavera) e origem geográfica das amostras. Ao analisar o grupo com todas as ordens de aves em todo território brasileiro, foram 28,05% resultados positivos (168/599) e 71,95% resultados negativos (431/599), sendo 19,9% (119/599) dos resultados obtidos no verão, 30,6% (183/599) no outono, 28,04% (168/599) no inverno e 21,54% (129/599) na primavera. Dentro dos resultados obtidos, no verão 31,09% (37/119) foram positivos; no outono 31,15% (57/183); no inverno 30,4% (51/168) e por fim, na primavera 17,83% (23/129) (Quadro 3), tendo sido demonstrada baixa incidência nesta última estação (p=0,003) pelo teste de Qui-Quadrado. Com base nestes achados conclui-se que durante a primavera, há diminuição da incidência de resultados positivos para Candida spp. possivelmente devido a um aumento da imunocompetência destes animais durante esta estação, sendo necessários mais estudos para associar resultados clínico-práticos aos estatísticos encontrados nesta pesquisa.

Infectious Diseases

The chapter describes bacerial, viral, parasitic and fungal infections commonly detected in pet birds. The chapter includes history, etiology, susceptible hosts, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, lesion, diagnosis, zoonosis, Treatment and control strategy of Tuberculosis, Salmonellosis, Chlamydiosis, Campylobacteriosis, Lyme disease, other bacterial infection, Newcastle disease, Avian Influenza infection, West Nile Virus infection, Usutu virus infection, Avian Borna Virus infection, Beak and feather disease, other viral infection, Toxoplasmosis, Giardiasis, Cryptosporidiosis, other parasitic infection, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis, Other fungal infections.

Variations in the morphology of Rhizomucor pusillus in granulomatous lesions of a Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus)

This report presents a new case of mucormycosis encountered in penguin characterized by morphological variation of hyphae and presence of sporangia with numerous sporangiospores. A 4.5-year-old Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) died after exhibiting anorexia, poor nutritional condition and dyspnea. Multiple nodular lesions were observed in the thoracic and abdominal regions. Histopathologically, hyphae of various sizes were seen in the lungs, air sac and nodular lesions. Myriad sporangiospores and several sporangia were observed in/around the bronchi or parabronchi. The very narrow and short hyphae in the nodules were not consistent with the characteristics of Mucorales. However, for most hyphae, including those in the nodules, sporangiospores and sporangia, immunohistochemistry revealed Mucorales-positive reactions. In addition, these fungi were identified as Rhizomucor pusillus by gene analysis.