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Dias LM, Sharifi F, de Keijzer MJ, Mesquita B, Desclos E, Kochan JA, de Klerk DJ, Ernst D, de Haan LR, Franchi LP, van Wijk AC, Scutigliani EM, Cavaco JEB, Tedesco AC, Huang X, Pan W, Ding B, Krawczyk PM, Heger M. Attritional evaluation of lipophilic and hydrophilic metallated phthalocyanines for oncological photodynamic therapy. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2021; 216:112146. [PMID: 33601256 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Oncological photodynamic therapy (PDT) relies on photosensitizers (PSs) to photo-oxidatively destroy tumor cells. Currently approved PSs yield satisfactory results in superficial and easy-to-access tumors but are less suited for solid cancers in internal organs such as the biliary system and the pancreas. For these malignancies, second-generation PSs such as metallated phthalocyanines are more appropriate. Presently it is not known which of the commonly employed metallated phtahlocyanines, namely aluminum phthalocyanine (AlPC) and zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPC) as well as their tetrasulfonated derivatives AlPCS4 and ZnPCS4, is most cytotoxic to tumor cells. This study therefore employed an attritional approach to ascertain the best metallated phthalocyanine for oncological PDT in a head-to-head comparative analysis and standardized experimental design. METHODS ZnPC and AlPC were encapsulated in PEGylated liposomes. Analyses were performed in cultured A431 cells as a template for tumor cells with a dysfunctional P53 tumor suppressor gene and EGFR overexpression. First, dark toxicity was assessed as a function of PS concentration using the WST-1 and sulforhodamine B assay. Second, time-dependent uptake and intracellular distribution were determined by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, respectively, using the intrinsic fluorescence of the PSs. Third, the LC50 values were established for each PS at 671 nm and a radiant exposure of 15 J/cm2 following 1-h PS exposure. Finally, the mode of cell death as a function of post-PDT time and cell cycle arrest at 24 h after PDT were analyzed. RESULTS In the absence of illumination, AlPC and ZnPC were not toxic to cells up to a 1.5-μM PS concentration and exposure for up to 72 h. Dark toxicity was noted for AlPCS4 at 5 μM and ZnPCS4 at 2.5 μM. Uptake of all PSs was observed as early as 1 min after PS addition to cells and increased in amplitude during a 2-h incubation period. After 60 min, the entire non-nuclear space of the cell was photosensitized, with PS accumulation in multiple subcellular structures, especially in case of AlPC and AlPCS4. PDT of cells photosensitized with ZnPC, AlPC, and AlPCS4 yielded LC50 values of 0.13 μM, 0.04 μM, and 0.81 μM, respectively, 24 h post-PDT (based on sulforhodamine B assay). ZnPCS4 did not induce notable phototoxicity, which was echoed in the mode of cell death and cell cycle arrest data. At 4 h post-PDT, the mode of cell death comprised mainly apoptosis for ZnPC and AlPC, the extent of which was gradually exacerbated in AlPC-photosensitized cells during 8 h. ZnPC-treated cells seemed to recover at 8 h post-PDT compared to 4 h post-PDT, which had been observed before in another cell line. AlPCS4 induced considerable necrosis in addition to apoptosis, whereby most of the cell death had already manifested at 2 h after PDT. During the course of 8 h, necrotic cell death transitioned into mainly late apoptotic cell death. Cell death signaling coincided with a reduction in cells in the G0/G1 phase (ZnPC, AlPC, AlPCS4) and cell cycle arrest in the S-phase (ZnPC, AlPC, AlPCS4) and G2 phase (ZnPC and AlPC). Cell cycle arrest was most profound in cells that had been photosensitized with AlPC and subjected to PDT. CONCLUSIONS Liposomal AlPC is the most potent PS for oncological PDT, whereas ZnPCS4 was photodynamically inert in A431 cells. AlPC did not induce dark toxicity at PS concentrations of up to 1.5 μM, i.e., > 37 times the LC50 value, which is favorable in terms of clinical phototoxicity issues. AlPC photosensitized multiple intracellular loci, which was associated with extensive, irreversible cell death signaling that is expected to benefit treatment efficacy and possibly immunological long-term tumor control, granted that sufficient AlPC will reach the tumor in vivo. Given the differential pharmacokinetics, intracellular distribution, and cell death dynamics, liposomal AlPC may be combined with AlPCS4 in a PS cocktail to further improve PDT efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Mendes Dias
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China; CICS-UBI, Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal; Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Farangis Sharifi
- Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Experimental Oncology and Radiobiology (LEXOR), Cancer Center Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mark J de Keijzer
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China; Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Barbara Mesquita
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Emilie Desclos
- Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Experimental Oncology and Radiobiology (LEXOR), Cancer Center Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jakub A Kochan
- Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Experimental Oncology and Radiobiology (LEXOR), Cancer Center Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel J de Klerk
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Daniël Ernst
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Lianne R de Haan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Leonardo P Franchi
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB) 2, Campus Samambaia, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, GO, Brazil; Department of Chemistry, Center of Nanotechnology and Tissue Engineering - Photobiology and Photomedicine Research Group, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Albert C van Wijk
- Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Enzo M Scutigliani
- Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Experimental Oncology and Radiobiology (LEXOR), Cancer Center Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - José E B Cavaco
- CICS-UBI, Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Antonio C Tedesco
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Nanotechnology and Tissue Engineering - Photobiology and Photomedicine Research Group, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Xuan Huang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Weiwei Pan
- Department of Cell Biology, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, PR China
| | - Baoyue Ding
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Przemek M Krawczyk
- Department of Medical Biology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Experimental Oncology and Radiobiology (LEXOR), Cancer Center Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michal Heger
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Jiaxing Key Laboratory for Photonanomedicine and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, PR China; Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Larue L, Myrzakhmetov B, Ben-Mihoub A, Moussaron A, Thomas N, Arnoux P, Baros F, Vanderesse R, Acherar S, Frochot C. Fighting Hypoxia to Improve PDT. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2019; 12:E163. [PMID: 31671658 PMCID: PMC6958374 DOI: 10.3390/ph12040163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has drawn great interest in recent years mainly due to its low side effects and few drug resistances. Nevertheless, one of the issues of PDT is the need for oxygen to induce a photodynamic effect. Tumours often have low oxygen concentrations, related to the abnormal structure of the microvessels leading to an ineffective blood distribution. Moreover, PDT consumes O2. In order to improve the oxygenation of tumour or decrease hypoxia, different strategies are developed and are described in this review: 1) The use of O2 vehicle; 2) the modification of the tumour microenvironment (TME); 3) combining other therapies with PDT; 4) hypoxia-independent PDT; 5) hypoxia-dependent PDT and 6) fractional PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludivine Larue
- Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés (LRGP), UMR 7274, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | | | - Amina Ben-Mihoub
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Macromoléculaire (LCPM), UMR 7375, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Albert Moussaron
- Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés (LRGP), UMR 7274, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Noémie Thomas
- Biologie, Signaux et Systèmes en Cancérologie et Neurosciences, CRAN, UMR 7039, Université de Lorraine, CNRS, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Philippe Arnoux
- Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés (LRGP), UMR 7274, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Francis Baros
- Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés (LRGP), UMR 7274, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Régis Vanderesse
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Macromoléculaire (LCPM), UMR 7375, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Samir Acherar
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Macromoléculaire (LCPM), UMR 7375, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Céline Frochot
- Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés (LRGP), UMR 7274, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Nancy, France.
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ARNFIELD MR, TULIP J, McPHEE MS. PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY DOSIMETRY IN POSTMORTEM AND in vivo
RAT TUMORS AND AN OPTICAL PHANTOM. Photochem Photobiol 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/php.1990.51.6.667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Wyld L, Reed MW, Brown NJ. The influence of hypoxia and pH on aminolaevulinic acid-induced photodynamic therapy in bladder cancer cells in vitro. Br J Cancer 1998; 77:1621-7. [PMID: 9635837 PMCID: PMC2150064 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1998.265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a cancer treatment based on the interaction of light and a photosensitizing chemical. The photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) is generated via the haem biosynthetic pathway after administration of aminolaevulinic acid (ALA). The cellular microenvironment of tumours is hypoxic and acidotic relative to normal tissue, which may influence PpIX generation and compromise PDT efficacy. This study used bladder cancer cells, incubated with ALA at various oxygen tensions and H+ ion concentrations, and assessed the effects on PpIX generation and PDT sensitivity. PpIX production was reduced at 0%, 2.5% (19 mmHg) and 5% (38 mmHg) oxygen compared with that at 21% (160 mmHg) oxygen (0.15, 0.28 and 0.398 ng microg(-1) protein compared with 0.68 ng microg(-1) respectively; P < 0.05). The response to PDT was abolished by hypoxia, as a result of both reduced PpIX synthesis and reduced PDT toxicity. PpIX production was greater at pH 7.0 and 6.5 (0.75 and 0.66 ng microg(-1)) compared with that at pH 7.4 and 5.5 (0.41 and 0.55 ng microg(-1) respectively). PDT cytotoxicity was enhanced at lower pH values. These results suggest that ALA-induced PDT may be inhibited by hypoxia due to reduced intrinsic PpIX synthesis. Acidosis may slightly enhance the efficacy of ALA-induced PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Wyld
- The Department of Surgical and Anaesthetic Sciences, Sheffield University, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, UK
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Abstract
The subcellular, cellular and tissue/tumour interactions with non-toxic photosensitizing chemicals plus non-thermal visible light (photodynamic therapy (PDT) are reviewed. The extent to which endothelium/vasculature is the primary target is discussed, and the biochemical opportunities for manipulating outcome highlighted. The nature of tumour destruction by PDT lends itself to imaging outcome by MRI and PET.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Moore
- Laser Oncology Programme, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, Christie Hospital (NHS) Trust, Manchester, UK
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Lee LK, Whitehurst C, Pantelides ML, Vernon DI, Moore JV. Interstitial photodynamic therapy in the Dunning R3327-AT6 prostatic carcinoma. Lasers Med Sci 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02156757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Rasch MH, Tijssen K, VanSteveninck J, Dubbelman TM. Synergistic interaction of photodynamic treatment with the sensitizer aluminum phthalocyanine and hyperthermia on loss of clonogenicity of CHO cells. Photochem Photobiol 1996; 64:586-93. [PMID: 8806235 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1996.tb03109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
When CHO cells were exposed to hyperthermia and subsequently to photodynamic treatment, the combined effects were additive but in the reverse sequence the interaction was synergistic. The synergistic interaction comprised two quite different components: (1) photodynamically induced sensitization of cellular proteins and/or supramolecular structures for thermal inactivation and (2) a photodynamically induced inhibition of the cellular repair system for sublethal thermal damage. The first component of the synergistic interaction was reflected by a change of the Arrhenius parameters of thermal cell killing. A lowering of the activation energy of this process was responsible for the synergistic interactions, whereas a concomitant decrease of the frequency factor, opposing this effect, actually caused a much lower degree of synergism at higher temperatures. This component of the synergistic interaction did not respond to the insertion of an intermediate incubation period between the two treatments. The second component of the synergistic interaction, viz the interference with the ability of cells to survive sublethal thermal damage, was reversible, as an intermediate incubation between photodynamic treatment and hyperthermia resulted in its repair. The photodynamically induced inhibition of the ability of cells to survive sublethal thermal damage was not related to ATP or glutathione depletion, inhibition of de novo protein synthesis or impairment of degradation of damaged protein molecules. Restoration of the repair system for sublethal damage depended on a metabolic process and required free intracellular Ca2+, suggesting that a cell signaling pathway may be involved. Thus, in a practical sense the magnitude of the synergistic interaction between photodynamic treatment and hyperthermia depends on the length of the interval between the two treatments and on the temperature and duration of the subsequent thermal treatment. This may have significant consequences for the development of clinical protocols for the combined application of photodynamic therapy and hyperthermia in the treatment of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Rasch
- Leiden University, Sylvius Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry, The Netherlands
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van Geel IP, Oppelaar H, Rijken PF, Bernsen HJ, Hagemeier NE, van der Kogel AJ, Hodgkiss RJ, Stewart FA. Vascular perfusion and hypoxic areas in RIF-1 tumours after photodynamic therapy. Br J Cancer 1996; 73:288-93. [PMID: 8562332 PMCID: PMC2074431 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1996.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The influence of photodynamic therapy (PDT) on vascular perfusion and the development of hypoxia was investigated in the murine RIF-1 tumour. Image analysis was used to quantify changes in perfusion and hypoxia at 5 min after interstitial Photofrin-mediated PDT. The fluorescent stain Hoechst 33342 was used as an in vivo marker of functional vascular perfusion and the antibody anti-collagen type IV as a marker of the tumour vasculature. The percentage of total tumour vasculature that was perfused decreased to less than 30% of control values after PDT. For the lower light doses this decrease was more pronounced in the centre of the tumour. The observed reduction in vascular perfusion showed a good linear correlation (r = 0.98) with previously published tumour perfusion data obtained with the 86Rb extraction technique. The image analysis technique provides extra information concerning the localisation of (non)-perfused vessels. To detect hypoxic tumour areas in vivo, an immunohistochemical method was used employing NITP [7-(4'-(2-nitroimidazol-1-yl)-butyl)-theophylline]. A large increase in hypoxic areas was found for PDT-treated tumours. More than half the total tumour area was hypoxic after PDT, compared with < 4% for control tumours. Our studies illustrate the potential of image analysis systems for monitoring the functional consequences of PDT-mediated vascular damage early after treatment. This provides direct confirmation that the perfusion changes lead to tissue hypoxia, which has implications for the combined treatment of PDT with bioreductive drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- I P van Geel
- Division of Experimental Therapy, Netherlands Cancer Institute/Antoni van Leeuwenhoekhuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Ma LW, Moan J, Steen HB, Iani V. Anti-tumour activity of photodynamic therapy in combination with mitomycin C in nude mice with human colon adenocarcinoma. Br J Cancer 1995; 71:950-6. [PMID: 7734319 PMCID: PMC2033800 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1995.184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The interaction of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and a chemotherapeutic drug, mitomycin C (MMC), was investigated using WiDr human colon adenocarcinoma tumours implanted on Balb/c athymic nude mice. The WiDr tumours were treated with PDT alone, MMC alone or with both. It was found that the combined treatment produced a greater retardation in the growth of the WiDr tumour than monotherapy with MMC or PDT. The synergistic effect was especially prominent when PDT was used in combination with a low dose of MMC (1 mg kg-1), since treatment of 1 mg kg-1 MMC alone had no effect on the tumour. The anti-tumour activity of PDT was found to be increased with MMC of 5 mg kg-1. The response of normal skin on mice feet to PDT slightly greater when PDT was combined with 5 mg kg-1 MMC than when PDT was applied alone, while no detectable additional effect on skin photosensitivity was observed when PDT was combined with 1 mg kg-1 MMC. An enhanced uptake of Photofrin in tumours was found 12 h and 24 h after administration of MMC. The effect of MMC on the cell cycle distribution of cell dissociated directly from the tumours was studied. The results suggest that the increased susceptibility to photoinactivation of Photofrin-sensitised tumours may be due to MMC-induced accumulation of the tumour cells in S-phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- L W Ma
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Cancer Research, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
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Penning LC, Tijssen K, Boegheim JP, van Steveninck J, Dubbelman TM. Relationship between photodynamically induced damage to various cellular parameters and loss of clonogenicity in different cell types with hematoporphyrin derivative as sensitizer. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1994; 1221:250-8. [PMID: 8167146 DOI: 10.1016/0167-4889(94)90248-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The possible causal relationship between various forms of photodynamically inflicted damage and reproductive cell death of cultivated cells was evaluated according to three criteria. The probability for the existence of such a relationship is high, when the particular form of cellular damage (i) exhibits a dose-effect curve, comparable to the dose-effect curve of loss of clonogenicity, (ii) is not readily repairable during further incubation of the treated cells and (iii) varies in a way comparable to the loss of clonogenicity under varying experimental conditions. According to these criteria it could be shown that many forms of photodynamically inflicted cellular damage are presumably not directly involved in loss of clonogenicity. Only for a few kinds of cellular damage studied in the present investigations was the probability for a causal relationship with reproductive cell death much higher. For L929 fibroblasts this is either an inhibition of the Na+/K(+)-ATPase activity, or a relatively slight DNA damage combined with a strong inhibition of DNA excision repair. For T24 human bladder carcinoma cells the kinds of cellular damage that may be causally related to reproductive cell death are again inhibition of Na+/K(+)-ATPase activity, inhibition of amino-acid (AIB and glycine) transport activity or impairment of mitochondrial function. Finally, for CHO cells, inhibition of leucine and phenylalanine transport and impairment of mitochondrial function may be crucial for loss of clonogenicity. These results indicate that the pathways leading to photodynamically induced reproductive cell death may be quite different for different cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Penning
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Sylvius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands
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van Geel IP, Oppelaar H, Oussoren YG, Stewart FA. Changes in perfusion of mouse tumours after photodynamic therapy. Int J Cancer 1994; 56:224-8. [PMID: 8314306 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.2910560214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The influence of photodynamic therapy (PDT) on vascular perfusion was investigated in 2 s.c. mouse tumours, a radiation-induced fibrosarcoma (RIF I) and a squamous-cell carcinoma (SCCVII). The 86Rb extraction technique was used to measure changes in perfusion relative to cardiac output at various intervals after interstitial PDT. Control groups showed that vascular perfusion in the RIF I tumours decreased with increasing tumour size. For both tumours, of constant size, vascular perfusion decreased to less than 10% of control values within 5 min after high PDT doses. Significant decreases in vascular perfusion were also seen after lower, sub-curative doses. Thereafter there was slow recovery towards control levels. Photofrin given at shorter intervals before illumination generally resulted in even larger decreases in tumour perfusion, and slower recovery. Comparison of tumour perfusion measurements after PDT with tumour response revealed an inverse correlation with tumour growth delay both for the RIF I and for the SCCVII tumours. PDT with sub-curative light doses appears to decrease vascular perfusion in the RIF I and SCCVII for a period of at least 24 hr. The most severe reductions in tumour blood flow were associated with the longest regrowth delays, indicating a major role of vascular damage in tumour response to PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- I P van Geel
- Division of Experimental Therapy (H6), The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam
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Baas P, Oppelaar H, Stavenuiter M, van Zandwijk N, Stewart FA. Interaction of the bioreductive drug SR 4233 and photodynamic therapy using photofrin in a mouse tumor model. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1993; 27:665-70. [PMID: 8226162 DOI: 10.1016/0360-3016(93)90394-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Combining the bioreductive drug SR 4233 with interstitial photodynamic therapy to improve efficacy. METHODS AND MATERIALS RIF1 tumors were implanted subcutaneously in mice and treated with interstitial photodynamic therapy. The bioreductive drug SR 4233 (a benzotriazine which exhibits preferential cell killing under hypoxic conditions) was combined with photodynamic therapy to exploit the induced hypoxia. SR 4233 was given to mice prior to or just after illumination. The effect of multiple SR 4233 injections given over the first 3 days after treatment was also evaluated. RESULTS The results from experiments with a 24 hr interval between Photofrin and illumination showed that SR 4233 produced only a small additional growth delay compared with photodynamic therapy alone (light doses of 300 or 400 J/cm, combined with 6 x 15 mg/kg SR 4233). Some cures (6/60), however, were found in groups treated with 200 to 400 J/cm with SR 4233, whereas only two cures (2/77) occurred at light doses up to 400 J/cm after photodynamic therapy alone. Reducing the interval between Photofrin injection and illumination increased the number of cures in the combination group, although this was associated with a marked increase in toxicity. A small increase in cure rate was observed for the combination of photodynamic therapy (6 hr interval) and SR 4233, although this was not significant due to the limited number of mice that survived treatment. CONCLUSION Only a limited effect of combining SR 4233 and interstitial photodynamic therapy was observed in this tumor model. A possible explanation could be the rapid conversion of SR 4233 into inactive metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Baas
- Division of Experimental Therapy, The Netherlands Cancer Institute
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Arnfield MR, Chapman JD, Tulip J, Fenning MC, McPhee MS. Optical properties of experimental prostate tumors in vivo. Photochem Photobiol 1993; 57:306-11. [PMID: 8451295 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1993.tb02292.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The optical properties of tumor tissue provide important information for optimizing treatment plans in photodynamic therapy, especially when interstitial application by multiple fibers is planned. Near infrared light, required to activate novel photosensitizers, should facilitate improved light penetrance of tumor tissue compared with 630 nm light used for activating Photofrin II. We have measured light energy fluence rates for 630 and 789 nm light along radial tracks from a single laterally diffusing optical fiber centrally implanted into Dunning R3327-AT and R3327-H rat prostate tumors in anesthetized rats. A total of 20 R3327-AT and 10 R3327-H tumors were used in this study with volumes from 2.6 to 13.3 cm3. Light track data were analyzed by an empirical model that described light attenuation. At 630 nm, light attenuation coefficients (LAC) were approximately 1.9 x higher than those at 789 nm for both tumors with the well-differentiated, well-perfused tumor (R3327-H) attenuating to a greater extent than did the rapidly growing anaplastic tumor (R3327-AT). The intertumor variation of LAC was greater than the spatial variations observed within individual tumors. LAC were a function of tumor volume for only 630 nm light in the R3327-AT tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Arnfield
- Department of Surgery, Cross Cancer Institute, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Bremner JC, Adams GE, Pearson JK, Sansom JM, Stratford IJ, Bedwell J, Bown SG, MacRobert AJ, Phillips D. Increasing the effect of photodynamic therapy on the RIF-1 murine sarcoma, using the bioreductive drugs RSU1069 and RB6145. Br J Cancer 1992; 66:1070-6. [PMID: 1457346 PMCID: PMC1978041 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1992.412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of combining photodynamic therapy (PDT) and bioreductive drugs has been investigated using the RIF-1 experimental murine tumour. Light was delivered interstially to the tumour at 675 nm using a single optical fibre attached to an argon-ion dye laser. The photosensitizer was disulphonated aluminium phthalocyanine (AlS2Pc) and the bioreductive drugs were the dual function nitroimidazole RSU1069 and its pro-drug RB6145. Varying the time between administration of the photosensitizer and light delivery (TL) from 30 min to 24 h had little influence on the extent of the anti-tumour effect of PDT alone, as measured by the regrowth delay endpoint. When the bioreductive drug was included in the treatment, administered 20 min before light irradiation, regrowth delay was greatly increased. The effectiveness of the combined treatment was optimum for short values of TL (about 1 h). Fluorescence microscopy was used to investigate the distribution of the photosensitizer within the tumours. This showed that the compound was mainly confined to the tumour vasculature over the first few hours post-treatment. The high efficacy of the combined treatment of PDT and bioreductive drugs for short values of TL suggest that photodynamic action, during the period when the photosensitizer AlS2Pc is confined to the vasculature, enhances the severity of tumour hypoxia which is sufficient to induce activation of the bioreductive drugs.
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15
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Ma LW, Moan J, Peng Q. Effects of light exposure on the uptake of photofrin II in tumors and normal tissues. Int J Cancer 1992; 52:120-3. [PMID: 1386841 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.2910520121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
DBA mice bearing CaD2 mammary carcinomas were used to determine the effect of giving small doses of light to the tumor area 1.5 hr after injecting Photofrin II (PII). The smallest light dose applied (12.5 J/cm2) had no effect on the uptake of PII in the tumor and its surrounding tissues, as measured 24 hr after the i.p. injection. However, several higher light doses increased the uptake of PII in the tumor significantly, the uptake in skin slightly, while the uptake in muscle tissue was decreased rather than increased. Thus, the PII concentration ratio between the tumor and the surrounding normal tissues was significantly improved. The rates of clearance of PII from irradiated tissues and non-irradiated tissues were not significantly different. Most likely, the present observations are due to transient pH lowering in the tumor resulting from vascular damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- L W Ma
- Department of Biophysics, Institute for Cancer Research, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
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16
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al-Nabulsi I, Gutierrez PL. Photosensitization of MCF-7 cells with diaziquone using visible light: correlation with DNA strand breaks and free radical production. Photochem Photobiol 1992; 56:201-9. [PMID: 1502264 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1992.tb02148.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The ability of visible light to enhance the activity of diaziquone (AZQ) was evaluated in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. MCF-7 cells were sensitive to AZQ, while visible light illumination had no appreciable effect on cell survival. In the presence of AZQ, visible light potentiated AZQ's cytotoxicity. This potentiation of AZQ activity correlated with a 2-2.5-fold increase in the formation of free radicals (hydroxyl radicals and AZQ semiquinone) and with the production of DNA strand breaks as measured by electron paramagnetic resonance and gel electrophoresis respectively. These results support the hypothesis that free radical formation is part of the mechanism of action of AZQ.
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Affiliation(s)
- I al-Nabulsi
- University of Maryland Cancer Center, Division of Developmental Therapeutics, Baltimore 21201
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- J Moan
- Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Montebello, Oslo
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18
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Moore RB, Chapman JD, Mokrzanowski AD, Arnfield MR, McPhee MS, McEwan AJ. Non-invasive monitoring of photodynamic therapy with 99technetium HMPAO scintigraphy. Br J Cancer 1992; 65:491-7. [PMID: 1562457 PMCID: PMC1977552 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1992.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of photodynamic therapy (PDT) on tumour perfusion in both anaplastic (R3327-AT) and well differentiated (R3327-H) Dunning prostatic tumours was studied using the radiopharmaceutical 99Technetium hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime (99mTc-HMPAO). Tumours in the left flanks of rats (Copenhage x Fischer, F1 hybrids) were treated with interstitial PDT when their volumes reached 2-3 cm3. Qualitative and quantitative data from pre- and post-PDT scintigraphy revealed a light-dose-dependent shut-down of tumour perfusion which was also time-dependent. Maximal shut-down, following a 1,600 J light-dose, occurred about 8 h post-PDT. Light exposure 2 h after the intravenous administration of the photosensitiser (Photofrin II) produced a greater vascular shut-down than did light exposure 24 h after the administration of the drug. Regional differences in perfusion within treated and non-treated tumours were measured by tomographic procedures. Light-dose-dependent volumes of perfusion shut-down were demonstrated in addition to the naturally occurring regional differences in tumour perfusion. This radiopharmaceutical may have future utility for monitoring the clinical treatment of solid tumours with PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Moore
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cross Cancer Institute, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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19
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Freitas I, Baronzio GF. Tumor hypoxia, reoxygenation and oxygenation strategies: possible role in photodynamic therapy. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1991; 11:3-30. [PMID: 1791492 DOI: 10.1016/1011-1344(91)80264-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The concept of hypoxia and its role in tumor therapy are currently under re-evaluation. Poor oxygenation is no longer visualized as an independent feature promoting necrosis and resistance to treatments, but rather as one of the several interdependent microenvironmental parameters associated with impaired blood perfusion. Tumor cells display several survival strategies and remain clonogenic for long periods in nutrient-deprived situations. Reoxygenation may cause lethal damage, improve the response to therapy, or else allow the cell variants adapted to hypoxia to resume proliferation with enhanced aggressiveness and resistance to treatment. The blood supply parameters, oxygenation status and metabolism of malignant cells are discussed here from the standpoint of tumor photodynamic therapy. The role of the tumor interstitial fluid as oxygen- and sensitizer-carrier is discussed. Techniques for assessing tumor oxygenation and for mapping hypoxic territories are described. Strategies for locally improving the oxygenation levels or for selectively destroying the hypoxic populations are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Freitas
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Pavia, Italy
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20
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Chapman JD. Measurement of tumor hypoxia by invasive and non-invasive procedures: a review of recent clinical studies. Radiother Oncol 1991; 20 Suppl 1:13-9. [PMID: 2020762 DOI: 10.1016/0167-8140(91)90181-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The potential importance of hypoxic cells in cancer treatment response has been debated since their presence in human tumors was inferred by the classical studies of Thomlinson and Gray. Tumor cells which contain low concentrations of molecular oxygen display resistance to high energy photon irradiation and some chemotherapy regimens, in both in vitro and animal tumor studies. No diagnostic procedure is currently available for measuring the oxygenation status of human tumors at the time of diagnosis or throughout treatment. Recent studies with oxygen electrodes and sensitizer-adducts indicate a wide heterogeneity of oxygen levels within solid human tumors, even for tumors of similar histology and size. These studies suggest that to determine the relative importance of tumor hypoxia in treatment resistance, a "predictive assay" for monitoring tumor oxygenation status in individual patients will be required. Recently, several sophisticated techniques for measuring tumor oxygen levels and tumor metabolism have indicated both intertumor and intratumor heterogeneity of tumor oxygen levels and other metabolites. While providing useful information about human tumor biology, most of the invasive procedures are not appropriate as a standard diagnostic tool. Non-invasive measurements of 1) sensitizer-adducts by nuclear medicine procedures and 2) tumor energetics by 31P NMR spectroscopy might be developed as routine predictors of tumor oxygenation and possible treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Chapman
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cross Cancer Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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21
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Tromberg BJ, Orenstein A, Kimel S, Barker SJ, Hyatt J, Nelson JS, Berns MW. In vivo tumor oxygen tension measurements for the evaluation of the efficiency of photodynamic therapy. Photochem Photobiol 1990; 52:375-85. [PMID: 2145595 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1990.tb04193.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Among the sequence of events which occur during photodynamic therapy (PDT) are depletion of oxygen and disruption of tumor blood flow. In order to more clearly understand these phenomena we have utilized transcutaneous oxygen electrodes to monitor tissue oxygen disappearance. These results provide, for the first time, non-invasive real-time information regarding the influence of light dose on tissue oxygenation during irradiation. Measurements were conducted on transplanted VX-2 skin carcinomas grown in the ears of New Zealand white rabbits. Rabbits were treated with Photofrin II and tumors were irradiated with up to 200 kJ/m2 (500 W/m2) of 630-nm light. Substantial reductions in tumor oxygen tension were observed upon administration of as little as 20 kJ/m2. For a series of brief irradiations, oxygen tension was modulated by the appearance of laser light. Tissue oxygen reversibility appeared to be dependent upon PDT dose. Long-term, irreversible tissue hypoxia was recorded in tumors for large (200 kJ/m2) fluences. These results suggest that transcutaneous oxygen tension may be useful as a general indicator of the effectiveness of PDT and as an in situ predictor of the energy required to elicit tumor damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- B J Tromberg
- Beckman Laser Institute and Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine 92715
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22
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Tromberg BJ, Kimel S, Orenstein A, Barker SJ, Hyatt J, Nelson JS, Roberts WG, Berns MW. Tumor oxygen tension during photodynamic therapy. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1990; 5:121-6. [PMID: 2140411 DOI: 10.1016/1011-1344(90)85011-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B J Tromberg
- Beckman Laser Institute and Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine 92715
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23
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Boegheim JP, Lagerberg JW, Tijssen K, Dubbelman TM, Van Steveninck J. Preferential uptake of cytotoxic porphyrins from hematoporphyrin derivative in murine L929 fibroblasts and Chinese hamster ovary K1 epithelial cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1989; 1012:237-42. [PMID: 2758036 DOI: 10.1016/0167-4889(89)90103-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamically induced loss of clonogenicity of murine L929 fibroblasts and Chinese hamster ovary K1 epithelial cells was determined with two different assays. It appeared that the loss of clonogenicity was much higher when 20 cells/cm2 were incubated with hematoporphyrin derivative (HPD) and illuminated, than when confluent cell layers were incubated with the same amount of HPD and illuminated prior to plating out. This dependency of cell killing on the experimental protocol was also observed when protoporphyrin (90-95% pure) was used as photosensitizer, but not when the cells were photodynamically treated with rose bengal or exposed to mitomycin C. Further, when cell layers were incubated with the residual solution that remained after the previous incubation of a confluent cell layer with HPD, illumination of these layers appeared to be almost non-toxic, although the overall porphyrin concentration in the residual solution was only slightly lower than in HPD. These results indicate that the porphyrins, responsible for loss of clonogenicity, are present in relatively small amounts in HPD and unpurified protoporphyrin and are preferentially taken up by the cells. Although 2-aminoisobutyric acid transport and DNA synthesis are among the most photosensitive targets with HPD, photodynamic treatment of L929 cells with the residual solution did not result in inhibition of the transport system and DNA synthesis. In contrast, the K+ content of the cells still decreased considerably, when utilizing the porphyrins, remaining in the residual solution as sensitizer. This indicates that under the present experimental conditions the disturbance of the membrane barrier function does not contribute to loss of clonogenicity of these cells and, moreover, that the photodynamically induced K+ leakage is caused by a component of HPD other than inhibition of 2-aminoisobutyric acid transport and DNA synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Boegheim
- Sylvius Laboratories, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Leiden, The Netherlands
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24
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Chapman JD, Lee J, Meeker BE. Keynote address: cellular reduction of nitroimidazole drugs: potential for selective chemotherapy and diagnosis of hypoxic cells. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1989; 16:911-7. [PMID: 2649465 DOI: 10.1016/0360-3016(89)90886-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Nitroimidazole drugs were initially developed as selective radiosensitizers of hypoxic cells and, consequently, as adjuvants to improve the local control probabilities of current radiotherapies. Misonidazole (MISO), the prototype radiosensitizing drug, was found in Phase I clinical studies to cause dose-limiting neurotoxicities (mainly peripheral neuropathies). MISO was also found to be cytotoxic in the absence of radiation and to covalently bind to cellular molecules, both processes demonstrating rates much higher in hypoxic compared with oxygenated cells. It is likely that neurotoxicity, cellular cytotoxicity and adduct formation results from reactions between reduction intermediates of MISO and cellular target molecules. Spin-offs from radiosensitizer research include the synthesis and characterization of more potent hypoxic cytotoxins and the exploitation of sensitizer-adducts as probes for measuring cellular and tissue oxygen levels. Current developments in hypoxic cell cytotoxin and hypoxic cell marker research are reviewed with specific examples from studies which characterize the cellular reduction of TF-MISO, (1-(2-nitro-1-imidazolyl)-3[2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy]-2-propanol).
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Chapman
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cross Cancer Institute, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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25
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Boegheim JP, Lagerberg JW, Dubbelman TM, Tijssen K, Tanke HJ, Van Der Meulen J, Van Steveninck J. Photodynamic effects of hematoporphyrin derivative on the uptake of rhodamine 123 by mitochondria of intact murine L929 fibroblasts and Chinese ovary K1 cells. Photochem Photobiol 1988; 48:613-20. [PMID: 2977224 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1988.tb02871.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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26
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Gomer CJ, Ferrario A, Hayashi N, Rucker N, Szirth BC, Murphree AL. Molecular, cellular, and tissue responses following photodynamic therapy. Lasers Surg Med 1988; 8:450-63. [PMID: 2976443 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.1900080503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is being utilized in the treatment of a wide variety of malignant tumors. Results using PDT have been encouraging, and controlled clinical trials are currently being performed. The procedure exploits both the tumor-localizing and -photosensitizing properties of hematoporphyrin derivative or its purified component, Photofrin II. When this porphyrin mixture is administered systemically, it is retained preferentially in tumor tissue as compared to surrounding normal tissue. Localized tumor destruction induced by PDT results from the photochemical generation of cytotoxic oxygen species within the tumor. This review will provide a summary of historical and current research pertaining to molecular, cellular, and tissue responses induced by PDT. Emphasis is placed on information related to the chemistry of current photosensitizers, subcellular targets, preclinical treatment parameters, and clinical responses following PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Gomer
- Clayton Ocular Oncology Center, Children's Hospital of Los Angeles
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