From Pink Frilly Dresses to ‘One of the Boys’: A Social-Cognitive Analysis of Gender Identity Development and Gender Bias

Patterns of Gender Development Across Intersections of Age, Gender, and Ethnicity-Race

Two components of gender identity are gender similarity, how one's self-concept relates to the major gender collectives (i.e., female, male), and felt pressure to conform to gender norms. The development of these components across ages and contexts has been understudied. The focus of this study was to examine variations in gender similarity and felt pressure across multiple intersecting contexts: developmental stage, gender, and ethnic-racial group. Six data sets were harmonized and means were compared across 2628 participants (51% girls, 49% boys) from four different developmental cohorts (childhood n = 678, early adolescence n = 1322, adolescence n = 415, and young adulthood n = 213) from diverse ethnic-racial backgrounds (45% White, 23% Latinx/Hispanic, 11% Black/African-American, 7% Asian-American, 5% American Indian, and 5% Multiracial). Results revealed nuanced patterns: Gender intensification was supported in early adolescence, primarily for boys. Young adult men reported lower levels of pressure and gender typicality than younger boys, but young adult women's levels were generally not different than younger girls. Surprisingly, young adult women's levels of own-gender similarity and pressure from parents were higher than adolescent girls. Expectations of gender differences in gender typicality and felt pressure were supported for all ages except young adults, with higher levels for boys. Finally, there were more similarities than differences across ethnic-racial groups, though when there were differences, minoritized participants reported heightened gender typicality and pressure (largely accounted for by higher scores for Black and Latinx participants and lower scores for White and Multiracial participants). These results add to what is understood about contextually dependent gender development.

Like Parent, like Child: General and Specific Associations Between Parents’ and Children’s Binary Gender Identity in a Gender Egalitarian Context

There is ample scientific evidence for the importance of parental gender socialization in children’s binary gender development. Surprisingly, little is known about the role of parents’ own gender identity in the binary gender identity development of their children. Therefore, the present study investigated the association between parents’ and children’s binary gender identity (i.e., similarity to same- and other-gender individuals) in a sample of 142 Dutch families with a child between the ages of 6 and 12 years old. The Dutch context is characterized by relatively high gender equality. Both parents and their children answered questions about their similarity to same-gender and other-gender individuals. Generalized estimating equations revealed that parents’ same-gender similarity and parents’ other-gender similarity were positively associated with their children’s same- and other-gender-similarity, respectively. In addition, more other-gender similarity in parents was associated with less same-gender similarity in girls, but more same-gender similarity in boys. Parents who reported high similarity with both genders were more likely to have children who also reported higher similarity with both genders. These findings indicate that parents’ own binary gender identity is related in general and specific ways to their children’s binary gender identity development. Parents should be made aware of their role in children’s binary gender identity development. Yet, more research on different types of gender identity in parents and their children is necessary.

The contributions of gender identification and gender ideologies to the purposes of social media use in adolescence

Gender differences in adolescent social media use are often documented in the research literature, yet few studies delve into why they occur. Accordingly, we investigated whether gender identification and gender ideologies are associated with five major purposes of social media use in adolescence (emotion and activity bonding with friends, social compensation, appearance validation, and bullying). Participants were 309 cisgender U.S. high school students (Mage = 15.74; 59% girls; 53% white) primarily using Instagram and Snapchat but also TikTok (more popular with girls) and Discord (more popular with boys) in 2019. Girls reported greater use of social media for emotion bonding, appearance validation, and social compensation compared to boys, who reported greater competitive activity bonding. Girls and boys did not differ in their use of social media for bullying. In linear regressions, masculinity ideology predicted purposes associated with girls (appearance validation, social compensation), as well as those associated with boys (competitive activity bonding), regardless of gender. Femininity ideology uniquely predicted emotion bonding and social compensation but only mediated the effect of gender for the latter. Findings illustrate that gender is important for understanding uses and gratifications of social media in adolescence, but traditional masculinity ideology is similar across genders and relates to multiple functions of social media in boys' and girls' lives. More work is needed to conceptualize gender beliefs and values in Gen Z, given recent challenges to gender binary ideology and low reliability of the scales in this study, which were developed before social media.

The acquisition of the gender-brilliance stereotype: Age trajectory, relation to parents' stereotypes, and intersections with race/ethnicity

Past research has explored children's gender stereotypes about specific intellectual domains, such as mathematics and science, but less is known about the acquisition of domain-general stereotypes about the intellectual abilities of women and men. During 2017 and 2018, the authors administered Implicit Association Tests to Chinese Singaporean adults and 8- to 12-year-olds (N = 731; 58% female) to examine the gender stereotype that portrays exceptional intellectual ability (e.g., genius, brilliance) as a male attribute. This gender-brilliance stereotype was present among adults and children and for both Chinese and White stereotype targets. It also was stronger among older children and among children whose parents also showed it. This early-emerging stereotype may be an obstacle to gender equity in many prestigious employment sectors.

Early Gender Differences in Valuing Strength

Being strong is a prominent male stereotype that children learn early in life; however, it is unknown as to when children start to value being strong and when gender differences in valuing strength might emerge. In the current study, we interviewed an ethnically diverse sample of 168 3-5 year-olds (88 girls, 80 boys) to address this gap in the literature. Results showed that boys as young as age 3 generally valued strength more than girls: (1) boys, on average, said it was more important to be strong than girls did, and (2) boys were more likely to prefer strength-related occupations than girls. Boys were also more likely to select boys than girls as the gender who cares more about physical strength. Additionally, with age, both girls and boys demonstrated knowledge of the stereotype that boys care about physical strength, with girls also being less likely to associate being a girl with being strong. Overall, the results suggest that valuing physical strength starts in early childhood, and gender differences in valuing strength are evident at the eve of gender identity development. Possible implications for boys' later well-being and health are discussed.

Encouraging Gender Conformity or Sanctioning Nonconformity? Felt Pressure from Parents, Peers, and the Self

Expectations regarding gendered behaviors are understood to emanate from many sources, including parents, peers, and the self but there has been little research directly comparing these three sources of pressure. The present study assessed felt pressure regarding masculine and feminine stereotypic behaviors and compared pressure from parents, peers, and the self and how these sources are associated with self-perceived gender typicality. Participants (N = 275; 53.09% female; grade 7 M = 12.35 years; grade 9 M = 14.3 years; 71% Anglo-Celtic) were recruited from independent schools in Sydney. Felt pressure from the self to engage in masculine behavior was greater than felt pressure from parents or peers. Male adolescents reported higher felt pressure to conform to gender conforming behavior from parents and the self and pressure to avoid gender nonconforming behavior was greatest from peers. Female adolescents reported felt pressure to conform to gender nonconforming behaviors and this pressure was the strongest from the self. Additionally, for both genders, felt pressure from the self was most consistently associated with gender typicality. These findings highlight the importance of self-expectations for gender cognitions relating to both masculine and feminine behaviors.

Children's intergroup gender bias and self-perceived same- and other-gender similarity

Children display intergroup bias in relation to gender. The present study examined whether children's self-perceived same- and other-gender similarity were related to their same- and other-gender positivity and negativity, respectively. Children aged 6-10 years (N = 149) were interviewed about their self-perceived similarity to girls and to boys and about the extent to which they thought positive and negative characteristics applied to boys and to girls. Among girls, greater self-perceived other-gender similarity was associated with more negativity towards the same gender. Similar to previous research, intergroup gender bias was more pronounced among girls, and children rated themselves as having more same- than other-gender similarity, with this pattern being more pronounced in boys. Thus, this study provides evidence suggesting that other-gender similarity is related to girls' negative attributions towards girls. It also replicates previous findings regarding gender differences in children's intergroup gender bias and gender similarity, respectively.

"We're Supposed to Look Like Girls, But Act Like Boys": Adolescent Girls' Adherence to Masculinity Norms

In the ecological systems perspective, gender ideologies are part of the macrosystem that shapes human development. A growing literature indicates that youth accommodate and resist such ideologies, with adherence to masculinity norms being linked with negative adjustment. Most masculinity research focuses on boys' adherence to masculinity, but girls are also pressured to uphold masculinity norms. Using mixed modeling, we examined girls' adherence to masculinity and psychological (self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and social (peer support and conflict) well-being in the United States (N = 407; M_age  = 12.28) and China (N = 356; M_age  = 12.41). In both countries, adherence to masculinity was negatively associated with psychosocial well-being. Chinese girls reported greater masculinity adherence, but associations with psychosocial well-being were not moderated by nationality.

Exploring dual gender typicality among young adults in the United States

The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in young adulthood by applying the dual-identity approach to gender typicality, previously developed with children, to a university sample. Participants ( n = 215, Mage = 20.20 years; 62% female) were asked to rate their perceived similarity to both own- and other-gender peers. They also completed questionnaires assessing sexist attitudes, internalized sexualization (females), adherence to male-typed behaviors in the context of interpersonal relationships (males; adherence to physical toughness and restrictive emotional expressivity), gender-based relationship efficacy, friendships, self-esteem, social self-efficacy, and social anxiety. Results indicated that self-perceived gender typicality involves comparisons to both gender groups, and that meaningful typologies can be created based on similarity to own- and other-gender groups. As with children, results indicated that identifying with one’s own gender was advantageous in terms of low social anxiety and relationships with own-gender peers. For adults who identified with both own- and other-gender peers, we identified additional social benefits (i.e., efficacy and friendships with other-gender peers). Further, we identified a downside to own-gender typicality: individuals who identified only with their own gender had more sexist attitudes than those who identified with the other gender. Findings support the viability of the dual-identity approach in young adults, and have implications for researchers assessing gender typicality across development.

Malleability of implicit associations across development

The prevalence of implicit intergroup bias in adults underscores the importance of knowing when during development such biases are most amenable to change. Although research suggests that implicit intergroup bias undergoes little change across development, no studies have directly examined whether developmental differences exist in the capacity for novel implicit associations to form or change. The present study examined this issue among children ages 5-12. Results from over 800 children provided evidence that novel implicit associations formed quickly, regardless of child age, association type (evaluative or non-evaluative) or the target of the association (social or non-social). Moreover, the magnitude of these changes was comparable across conditions. Coupled with similar findings among adults, these data underscore the importance of first impressions in shaping implicit intergroup bias and provide further evidence that the acquisition of implicit associations is governed by a domain-general mechanism that may be fully in place by age 5.

Traditional Masculinity During the Middle School Transition: Associations with Depressive Symptoms and Academic Engagement

Culturally prescribed social scripts for traditional masculinity that emphasize social dominance are frequently linked to diminished well-being for men across a variety of psychological domains. However, few studies have examined the role of traditional masculinity scripts in the lives of early adolescent boys and girls, despite their relevance during this period and their potential developmental implications. To address this need, we examined the development of early adolescents' conformity to traditional masculinity across the middle school transition, as well as its links with depressive symptoms and academic engagement. Using a diverse sample of 280 adolescents (M _age = 11.13, SD = 0.51; 54.3 % Female; 44 % Latina/o) assessed at the beginning (fall 2014) and end (spring 2015) of their first year of middle school, we found an increase in conformity to traditional masculinity scripts among boys, but not among girls. For boys and girls alike, conformity to traditional masculinity predicted greater depressive symptoms and decreased academic engagement. Depressive symptoms also mediated the association between traditional masculinity and academic engagement for boys and girls. This study is among the first to study conformity to traditional masculinity from a developmental lens. The findings suggest that traditional masculinity scripts are relevant for early adolescents (particularly boys) transitioning to middle school. However, for both boys and girls, conformity to these scripts can compromise psychological and academic well-being.

Toward an Intersectional Approach in Developmental Science: The Role of Race, Gender, Sexual Orientation, and Immigrant Status

Developmental theory and research have often focused on a single social identity category, for example, race or sexual orientation, and examined the consequences of that category on life outcomes. Yet intersectional models of social disadvantage (eg, Cole, 2009; Crenshaw, 1995; King, 1988) suggest that social categories combine to shape the experiences and life outcomes of individuals across life domains. In this chapter, we review empirical research that offers insight into the intersectionality of social identities across three critical developmental periods, namely, middle childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood. We also consider the consequences of intersecting identities across several life domains, including intergroup relations and political and civic engagement. Recognizing that the body of work on social identities is expansive, we focus our review on race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and immigrant status. In each developmental stage, we discuss what we know, drawing from the limited empirical literature, and offer suggestions on where we need to go moving forward. We conclude that research that focuses on as a single category and ignores the specific domain of development provides an incomplete and inaccurate picture that will hinder efforts to develop culturally appropriate and clinically effective prevention and intervention programs to meet the needs of our diverse children and youth living in the United States.

Stereotype Threat in der Grundschule

Zusammenfassung. Das Ziel der Studie war es zu untersuchen, ob bereits Grundschulkinder von Stereotype-Threat- beziehungsweise Lift-Effekten in ihrer Mathematikleistung beeinflusst werden. Dazu wurde auf eine implizite Manipulation zurückgegriffen, um Geschlechtsstereotype zu aktivieren, bevor ein Mathematiktest absolviert wurde. Bei Mädchen sollte die Aktivierung zu einer schlechteren Leistung führen, während für Jungen ein Leistungsvorsprung erwartet wurde. An der Untersuchung nahmen 120 Viertklässler teil (66 männlich, 54 weiblich, Alter M = 9.24, SD = 0.61). Hypothesenkonform ergab sich eine signifikante Interaktion zwischen Geschlecht und Stereotypaktivierung bei schwierigen Aufgaben. Während Mädchen in der Stereotypgruppe schlechter abschnitten als Mädchen in der Kontrollgruppe, konnte bei den Jungen kein Leistungsunterschied beobachtet werden. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen, dass Geschlechtsstereotype implizit bereits in der Grundschule die Mathematikleistung von Mädchen beeinträchtigen können.

Do children with gender dysphoria have intense/obsessional interests?

This study examined whether children clinically referred for gender dysphoria (GD) show increased symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Circumscribed preoccupations or intense interests were considered as overlapping symptoms expressed in GD and ASD. In gender-referred children (n = 534; 82.2% male) and their siblings (n = 419; 57.5% male), we examined Items 9 and 66 on the Child Behavior Checklist, which measure obsessions and compulsions, respectively. Non-GD clinic-referred (n = 1,201; 48.5% male) and nonreferred (n = 1,201; 48.5% male) children were also examined. Gender-referred children were elevated compared to all other groups for Item 9, and compared to siblings and nonreferred children for Item 66. A gender-related theme was significantly more common for gender-referred boys than male siblings on Item 9 only. A gender-related theme was not significantly more common for gender-referred girls compared to their female siblings on either item. The findings for Item 9 support the idea that children with GD show an elevation in obsessional interests. For gender-referred boys in particular, gender-related themes constituted more than half of the examples provided by their mothers. Intense/obsessional interests in children with GD may be one of the factors underlying the purported link between GD and ASD.

Creating a vision for the future: key competencies and strategies for culturally competent practice with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) older adults in the health and human services

Sexual orientation and gender identity are not commonly addressed in health and human service delivery, or in educational degree programs. Based on findings from Caring and Aging with Pride: The National Health, Aging and Sexuality Study (CAP), the first national federally-funded research project on LGBT health and aging, this article outlines 10 core competencies and aligns them with specific strategies to improve professional practice and service development to promote the well-being of LGBT older adults and their families. The articulation of key competencies is needed to provide a blueprint for action for addressing the growing needs of LGBT older adults, their families, and their communities.