Molecular epidemiology of Aleutian disease virus in free-ranging domestic, hybrid, and wild mink

Prevalence of Aleutian Mink Disease Virus (AMDV) in Free-Ranging American Mink from Biebrza and Narew National Parks (Poland)-An Epidemiological Concern

Aleutian Mink Disease Virus (AMDV) is the causative agent of Aleutian disease (AD). This progressive and chronic disorder significantly impacts the mink breeding industry, affecting farmed and free-ranging American and European mink. This study investigated AMDV variants isolated from free-ranging American mink in northeastern Poland. Between 2018 and 2019, 26 spleen samples were collected from mink in Narew National Park (NNP) and Biebrza National Park (BNP). DNA was extracted and subjected to PCR to amplify the NS1 gene, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The NS1 gene was detected in 50% of samples from NNP minks and in 30% of samples from BNP minks, with an overall prevalence of 42.31%; these findings align with global data and indicate serious ecological and health concerns. Ten closely related AMDV variants and one distinct variant were identified. The grouped variants exhibited high genetic homogeneity, closely related to strains found in mink from the USA, Germany, Greece, Latvia, and Poland; meanwhile, the distinct variant showed similarities to strains found in mink from Finland, Denmark, China, Poland, and Latvia, suggesting multiple infection sources. These findings, consistent with data from Polish mink farms, indicate significant genetic similarity between farmed and wild mink strains, suggesting potential bidirectional transmission. This underscores the importance of a One Health approach, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. Continuous surveillance and genetic studies are crucial for understanding AMDV dynamics and mitigating their impacts. Measures to reduce transmission between farmed and wild mink populations are vital for maintaining mink health and ecosystem stability.

Aleutian disease: Risk factors and ImmunAD strategy for genetic improvement of tolerance in American mink (Neogale vison)

Aleutian disease (AD) is a devastating infectious disease in American mink (Neogale vison) industry caused by Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). Two crucial steps toward controlling infectious diseases in farm animals are: (i) assessment of the infection risk factors to minimize the likelihood of infection and (ii) selection of animals with superior immune responses against pathogens to build tolerant farms. This study aimed to investigate AD risk factors and evaluate a novel "ImmunAD" approach for genetic improvement of AD tolerance. Phenotypic records and pedigree information of 1,366 and 24,633 animals were included in this study. The risk of animal's age, sex, color type, and year of sampling on AMDV infection was assessed using a logistic regression model and counter immune-electrophoresis (CIEP) test results. ImmunAD phenotype was calculated based on AMDVG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and CIEP test results, and breeding values for ImmunAD were estimated using an animal model. Animals were classified into high-coordinated (HCIR), average-coordinated (ACIR), and low-coordinated immune responders (LCIR) using ImmunAD's breeding values, and the impact of selection of HCIR on live grade of pelt quality (PQ), harvest weight (HW), and harvest length (HL) breeding values were evaluated. Age of > 1 year, male sex, and year of sampling were identified as significant risk factors of AD (p < 0.05). A moderate-to-high heritability (0.55±0.07) was estimated for ImmunAD, while a higher heritability was observed among the CIEP-positive animals (0.76±0.06). Significantly higher breeding values were observed for PQ and HL among HCIR than those for LCIR and ACIR (p < 0.05). Our findings indicate the critical role of male breeders in AD distribution within mink farms. Regular screening of AD in male breeders before pairing them with females during breeding seasons can help disease control. ImmunAD strategy can be applied to genetic improvement of AD tolerance, with favorable impacts on some growth and production traits. Higher genetic gains can be achieved in populations with higher AD seroprevalences.

Strong selection signatures for Aleutian disease tolerance acting on novel candidate genes linked to immune and cellular responses in American mink (Neogale vison)

Aleutian disease (AD) is a multi-systemic infectious disease in American mink (Neogale vison) caused by Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). This study aimed to identify candidate regions and genes underlying selection for response against AMDV using whole-genome sequence (WGS) data. Three case-control selection signatures studies were conducted between animals (N = 85) producing high versus low antibody levels against AMDV, grouped by counter immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) test and two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Within each study, selection signals were detected using fixation index (FST) and nucleotide diversity (θπ ratios), and validated by cross-population extended haplotype homozygosity (XP-EHH) test. Within- and between-studies overlapping results were then evaluated. Within-studies overlapping results indicated novel candidate genes related to immune and cellular responses (e.g., TAP2, RAB32), respiratory system function (e.g., SPEF2, R3HCC1L), and reproduction system function (e.g., HSF2, CFAP206) in other species. Between-studies overlapping results identified three large segments under strong selection pressure, including two on chromosome 1 (chr1:88,770-98,281 kb and chr1:114,133-120,473) and one on chromosome 6 (chr6:37,953-44,279 kb). Within regions with strong signals, we found novel candidate genes involved in immune and cellular responses (e.g., homologous MHC class II genes, ITPR3, VPS52) in other species. Our study brings new insights into candidate regions and genes controlling AD response.

Genomic characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Aleutian mink disease virus identified in a sudden death mink case

Aleutian mink disease (AMD) is one of the most serious diseases in minks worldwide, it brings tremendous financial losses in mink farming. AMD virus (AMDV) has unusually high genetic diversity, its genomic structure remains unclear. In 2014, sudden death of breeding minks was occurred in northeast China. After clinical signs evaluation and virus isolation, AMDV was identified in all sudden death minks, we investigated the complete genomic sequence of AMDV-LM isolated from the sudden death case. The full-genome sequence of AMDV-LM was 7 nucleotides (nts) or 8 nts longer than isolates AMDV-BJ and AMDV-G. AMDV-LM contained two unique nucleotide changes in VP2 (G79T, T710C), which led to two amino acid changes G27W and L237S. For NS1, some unique point mutations, such as A374C, A428C, A463C, and T476A were found and resulted in four unique amino acid mutations at N24V, H125P, V143P, K155Q, and V159N, respectively. The predicted secondary structure of the 5' terminal of AMDV-LM formed a large bubble formation near the 5' end, which affected the stability of the U-shaped hairpin. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that AMDV-LM was closely related to Chinese isolates and confirmed that AMDV strains circulating in China had different origins of ancestors. This study was first to investigate the association of sudden death of adult breeding minks with AMDV infection. Our findings provide useful suggestions for evaluation of the pathogenic potential of AMDV, additional details on AMDV genome characterization were also presented. Future work should focus on the importance of AMDV-LM strain in mink infection.

First Report of Skunk Amdoparvovirus (Species Carnivore amdoparvovirus 4) in Europe in a Captive Striped Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Skunk amdoparvovirus (Carnivore amdoparvovirus 4, SKAV) is closely related to Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) and circulates primarily in striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in North America. SKAV poses a threat to mustelid species due to reported isolated infections of captive American mink (Neovison vison) in British Columbia, Canada. We detected SKAV in a captive striped skunk in a German zoo by metagenomic sequencing. The pathological findings are dominated by lymphoplasmacellular inflammation and reveal similarities to its relative Carnivore amdoparvovirus 1, the causative agent of Aleutian mink disease. Phylogenetic analysis of the whole genome demonstrated 94.80% nucleotide sequence identity to a sequence from Ontario, Canada. This study is the first case description of a SKAV infection outside of North America.

Does Aleutian Disease Occur among Domestic Ferrets in Poland? Results of Preliminary Studies Conducted in Two Regions of Poland

Although ferrets are becoming increasingly popular as companion animals, their population in households is still far lower compared to cats or dogs. This results in a much smaller number of ferret specialists, and thus poorer diagnosis of various diseases, including the Aleutian disease. Aleutian disease is a slowly progressing viral disease which can cause different symptoms in these animals. The virus can also cause symptoms in different species of animals, but in the case of ferrets, there is relatively less information on about both the prevalence and symptoms of this disease. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the presence of antibodies and the virus itself in ferrets from two regions of Poland. Blood samples and rectal swabs were obtained from 61 domestic ferrets from Mazowieckie and Dolnośląskie voivodships. The presence of antibodies was determined using serological methods and real-time PCR analysis was performed to determine presence of viral DNA. Serological analyses demonstrated that 49% (n = 30) of the ferrets had antibodies against Aleutian disease virus (ADV). No relationship was observed between the prevalence of antibodies and age, sex, habitual residence or origin of ferrets. The real-time PCR did not confirm DNA of the ADV in any of the blood and rectal swab samples. Obtained results suggest that ADV circulates in the analyzed population of ferrets, therefore further studies in this direction should be carried out.

Long-term antibody production and viremia in American mink (Neovison vison) challenged with Aleutian mink disease virus

Background

Selecting American mink (Neovison vison) for tolerance to Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) has gained popularity in recent years, but data on the outcomes of this activity are scant. The objectives of this study were to determine the long-term changes in viremia, seroconversion and survival in infected mink. Mink were inoculated intranasally with a local isolate of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) over 4 years (n = 1742). The animals had been selected for tolerance to AMDV for more than 20 years (TG100) or were from herds free of AMDV (TG0). The progenies of TG100 and TG0, and their crosses with 25, 50 and 75% tolerance ancestry were also used. Blood samples were collected from each mink up to 14 times until 1211 days post-inoculation (dpi) and were tested for viremia by PCR and for anti-AMDV antibodies by counter-immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP). Viremia and CIEP status were not considered when selecting replacements. Low-performing animals were pelted and the presence of antibodies in their blood and antibody titer were measured by CIEP, and viremia and viral DNA in seven organs (n = 936) were tested by PCR.

Results

The peak incidences of viremia (66.7%) and seropositivity (93.5%) were at 35 dpi. The incidence of viremia decreased over time while the incidence of seroconversion increased. The least-squares means of the incidence of PCR positive of lymph node (0.743) and spleen (0.656) were significantly greater than those of bone marrow, liver, kidneys, lungs and small intestine (0.194 to 0.342). Differences in tolerant ancestry were significant for every trait measured. Incidences of viremia over time, terminal viremia, seropositivity over time, AMDV DNA in organs and antibody titer were highest in the susceptible groups (TG0 or TG25) and lowest in the tolerant groups (TG100 or TG75).

Conclusion

Previous history of selection for tolerance resulted in mink with reduced viral replication and antibody titer. Viremia had a negative effect and antibody production had a positive effect on survival and productivity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03462-7.

A new perspective on the evolution and diversity of the genus Amdoparvovirus (family Parvoviridae) through genetic characterization, structural homology modeling, and phylogenetics

Amdoparvoviruses (genus Amdoparvovirus, family Parvoviridae) are primarily viruses of carnivorans, but recent studies have indicated that their host range might also extend to rodents and chiropterans. While their classification is based on the full sequence of the major nonstructural protein (NS1), several studies investigating amdoparvoviral diversity have been focused on partial sequences, leading to difficulties in accurately determining species demarcations and leaving several viruses unclassified. In this study, while reporting the complete genomic sequence of a novel amdoparvovirus identified in an American mink (British Columbia amdoparvovirus, BCAV), we studied the phylogenetic relationships of all amdoparvovirus-related sequences and provide a comprehensive reevaluation of their diversity and evolution. After excluding recombinant sequences, phylogenetic and pairwise sequence identity analyses allowed us to define fourteen different viruses, including the five currently classified species, BCAV, and four additional viruses that fulfill the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses criteria to be classified as species. We show that the group of viruses historically known as Aleutian mink disease virus (species Carnivore amdoparvovirus 1) should be considered as a cluster of at least four separate viral species that have been co-circulating in mink farms, facilitating the occurrence of inter-species recombination. Genome organization, splicing donor and acceptor sites, and protein sequence motifs were surprisingly conserved within the genus. The sequence of the major capsid protein virus protein 2 (VP2) was significantly more conserved between and within species compared to NS1, a phenomenon possibly linked to antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). Homology models suggest a remarkably high degree of conservation of the spikes located near the icosahedral threefold axis of the capsid, comprising the surface region associated with ADE. A surprisingly high number of divergent amino acid positions were found in the luminal threefold and twofold axes of the capsid, regions of hitherto unknown function. We emphasize the importance of complete genome analyses and, given the marked phylogenetic inconsistencies across the genome, advise to obtain the complete coding sequences of divergent strains. Further studies on amdoparvovirus biology and structure as well as epidemiological and virus discovery investigations are required to better characterize the ecology and evolution of this important group of viruses.

Seroprevalence and Molecular Epidemiology of Aleutian Disease in Various Countries during 1972-2021: A Review and Meta-Analysis

Simple Summary

Aleutian disease is caused by the Aleutian mink disease virus and is one of the most serious infectious diseases that affect the family Mustelidae, including the American mink, wild European mink, weasels, badgers and other animal species, such as skunks, raccoons, dogs, cats and mice, as well as humans. Effective treatments and vaccines against Aleutian disease have not been developed to date. Prophylactic programs that focus on the identification and elimination of infected mink are one of the methods of controlling the negative outcomes of Aleutian disease. This article analyses the seroprevalence of Aleutian mink disease virus infections in American and European mink and other species around the world, and reviews recent knowledge relating to the molecular epidemiology of the Aleutian mink disease virus.

Abstract

Aleutian disease (AD) poses a serious threat to both free-ranging and farmed mink around the world. The disease is caused by the Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV), which also poses a health risk for other members of the family Mustelidae, including wild mink, weasels, badgers and other animal species. This article analyses the seroprevalence of AMDV infections in mink and other species around the world, and reviews recent knowledge relating to the molecular epidemiology of the AMDV. Depending on the applied diagnostic technique and the country, the prevalence of anti-AMDV antibodies or AMDV DNA was established at 21.60–100.00% in farmed American mink, 0.00–93.30% in free-ranging American mink and 0.00–25.00% in European mink. Anti-AMDV antibodies or AMDV DNA were also detected in other free-living fur-bearing animals in Europe and Canada, where their prevalence was determined at 0.00–32.00% and 0.00–70.50%, respectively. This may indicate a potential threat to various animal species. AMDV strains are not clustered into genotypes based on the geographic origin, year of isolation or pathogenicity. The isolates that were identified on mink farms around the world originated from North America because American mink were introduced to Europe and Asia for breeding purposes and to restock natural populations.

Diversity and transmission of Aleutian mink disease virus in feral and farmed American mink and native mustelids

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV), which causes Aleutian disease, is widely spread both in farmed mink and wild mustelids. However, only limited data are available on the role of wild animals in AMDV transmission and spread. Our aim was to shed light on AMDV transmission among wild mustelids and estimate the effect of intense farming practices on the virus circulation by studying AMDV prevalence and genetic diversity among wild mustelids in Poland. We compared AMDV seroprevalence and proportion of PCR-positive individuals in American mink, polecats, otters, stone martens, and pine martens and used the phylogenetic analysis of the NS1 region to study transmission. In addition, we used a metagenomic approach to sequence complete AMDV genomes from tissue samples. In eastern Poland, AMDV seroprevalence in wild mustelids varied from 22 per cent in otters to 62 per cent and 64 per cent in stone martens and feral mink, respectively. All studied antibody-positive mink were also PCR positive, whereas only 10, 15, and 18 per cent of antibody-positive polecats, pine martens, and stone martens, respectively, were PCR positive, suggesting lower virus persistence among these animal species as compared to feral mink. In phylogenetic analysis, most sequences from feral mink formed region-specific clusters that have most likely emerged through multiple introductions of AMDV to feral mink population over decades. However, virus spread between regions was also observed. Virus sequences derived from farmed and wild animals formed separate subclusters in the phylogenetic tree, and no signs of recent virus transmission between farmed and wild animals were observed despite the frequent inflow of farmed mink escapees to wild populations. These results provide new information about the role of different mustelid species in AMDV transmission and about virus circulation among the wild mustelids. In addition, we pinpoint gaps of knowledge, where more studies are needed to achieve a comprehensive picture of AMDV transmission.

Assessment of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) prevalence in feral American mink in Iceland. Case study of a pending epizootiological concern in Europe

BACKGROUND

Recurring escapes or deliberate releases and subsequent infiltration or establishment of feral populations by individuals from fur farms have been commonly noted since the beginning of fur industry expansion. Once animals have invaded ecosystems adjacent to source farms escapees can change the demography of the feral populations through hybridization, outbreeding depression, competition and spreading of various pathogens which can decimate wild populations. In our study, we aimed to assess spread of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) in the feral population of American mink (Neovison vison) in Iceland. The additional objective was to elucidate whether basic morpho-anatomical parameters (i.e., Fulton's condition factor or spleen to body weight ratio) might be used as a preliminary indicator of AMDV infection.

METHODS

American mink (n = 164) were captured by professional hunters in 8 regions of Iceland. The detection of AMDV in the spleen of male and female individuals was based on PCR amplification of an NS1 gene fragment.

RESULTS

We confirmed AMDV presence in 23.8% (n = 39) of collected samples with no significant difference in infection rate between males and females. Additionally, we revealed that the prevalence of virus in the feral population was higher closer to fur farms. However, the countrywide prevalence and direction of AMDV distribution needs to be further investigated. Comparison of condition indices in non-infected and infected animals showed significant deterioration of body and spleen parameters in the latter group. Therefore, the application of basic measurements of the American mink may be used to evaluate the health status of individuals in terms of pathogen infection.

CONCLUSIONS

The study shed a new light on prevalence and distribution of AMDV in the feral population of American mink in Iceland and the results might be successfully applied to develop models to infer dynamics of various pathogens, even those latently transmitted by disease-free animals.

AMDV Vaccine: Challenges and Perspectives

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) is known to cause the most significant disease in the mink industry. It is globally widespread and manifested as a deadly plasmacytosis and hyperglobulinemia. So far, measures to control the viral spread have been limited to manual serological testing for AMDV-positive mink. Further, due to the persistent nature of this virus, attempts to eradicate Aleutian disease (AD) have largely failed. Therefore, effective strategies to control the viral spread are of crucial importance for wildlife protection. One potentially key tool in the fight against this disease is by the immunization of mink against AMDV. Throughout many years, several researchers have tried to develop AMDV vaccines and demonstrated varying degrees of protection in mink by those vaccines. Despite these attempts, there are currently no vaccines available against AMDV, allowing the continuation of the spread of Aleutian disease. Herein, we summarize previous AMDV immunization attempts in mink as well as other preventative measures with the purpose to shed light on future studies designing such a potentially crucial preventative tool against Aleutian disease.

Impact of viral features, host jumps and phylogeography on the rapid evolution of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV)

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) is one the most relevant pathogens of domestic mink, where it can cause significant economic losses, and wild species, which are considered a threat to mink farms. Despite their relevance, many aspects of the origin, evolution, and geographic and host spreading patterns of AMDV have never been investigated on a global scale using a comprehensive biostatistical approach. The present study, benefitting from a large dataset of sequences collected worldwide and several phylodynamic-based approaches, demonstrates the ancient origin of AMDV and its broad, unconstrained circulation from the initial intercontinental spread to the massive among-country circulation, especially within Europe, combined with local persistence and evolution. Clear expansion of the viral population size occurred over time until more effective control measures started to be applied. The role of frequent changes in epidemiological niches, including different hosts, in driving the high nucleotide and amino acid evolutionary rates was also explored by comparing the strengths of selective pressures acting on different populations. The obtained results suggest that the viral passage among locations and between wild and domesticated animals poses a double threat to farm profitability and animal welfare and health, which is particularly relevant for endangered species. Therefore, further efforts must be made to limit viral circulation and to refine our knowledge of factors enhancing AMDV spread, particularly at the wild-domestic interface.

Illegal Wildlife Trade and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Pervasive Impacts to Species, Ecosystems and Human Health

Emerging infectious disease (EID) events can be traced to anthropogenic factors, including the movement of wildlife through legal and illegal trade. This paper focuses on the link between illegal wildlife trade (IWT) and infectious disease pathogens. A literature review through Web of Science and relevant conference proceedings from 1990 to 2020 resulted in documenting 82 papers and 240 identified pathogen cases. Over 60% of the findings referred to pathogens with known zoonotic potential and five cases directly referenced zoonotic spillover events. The diversity of pathogens by taxa included 44 different pathogens in birds, 47 in mammals, 16 in reptiles, two in amphibians, two in fish, and one in invertebrates. This is the highest diversity of pathogen types in reported literature related to IWT. However, it is likely not a fully representative sample due to needed augmentation of surveillance and monitoring of IWT and more frequent pathogen testing on recovered shipments. The emergence of infectious disease through human globalization has resulted in several pandemics in the last decade including SARS, MERS, avian influenza H1N1,and Ebola. We detailed the growing body of literature on this topic since 2008 and highlight the need to detect, document, and prevent spillovers from high-risk human activities, such as IWT.

Multi-host dispersal of known and novel carnivore amdoparvoviruses

Amdoparvoviruses (family Parvoviridae) are ssDNA viruses that cause an immune complex-mediated wasting syndrome in carnivores. They are multi-host pathogens and cross-species infection is facilitated by the fact that viral entry is mediated by cellular Fc receptors recognizing antibody-coated viruses. We developed a pan-amdoparvovirus PCR and screened tissue samples from 666 wild carnivores (families Felidae, Canidae, and Mustelidae) from Newfoundland or Labrador (Canada) and molecularly characterized the identified strains. Fifty-four out of 666 (8.1%) animals were amdoparvovirus-positive. Infection rate was the highest in American mink (34/47, 72.3%), followed by foxes (Arctic and red foxes, 13/311, 4.2%), lynx (2/58, 3.5%), and American martens (5/156, 3.4%). No virus was detected in samples from 87 coyotes and 17 ermines. Viruses from Newfoundland were classified as Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). Mink harvested near AMDV-affected fur farms had higher prevalence (24/24, 100%) than other mink (10/23, 43.5%; P < 0.001) and their viruses were phylogenetically closely related to those from farms, while most viruses from other mink were in other clades. Strains from three foxes and two lynx were highly related to mink strains. This proves that farms disperse AMDV that subsequently spreads among wild mink (maintenance host) and transmits to other spillover carnivore hosts. In Labrador two novel viruses were identified, Labrador amdoparvovirus 1 (LaAV-1) found in foxes (9/261, 3.5%) and martens (5/156, 3.4%), and LaAV-2 found in one fox (0.4%). LaAV-1 fulfills all requirements to be classified as a novel species. LaAV-1 was most similar to viruses of mink and skunks (AMDV and skunk amdoparvovirus (SKAV)) while LaAV-2 was more closely related to other viruses infecting canids. LaAV-1 capsid proteins were almost indistinguishable from those of AMDV in some regions, suggesting that LaAV-1 could be a virus of mustelids that can infect foxes. While intensive farming practices provide occasions for inter-species transmission in farms, niche overlap or predation could explain cross-species transmission in the wild, but competition among sympatric species reduces the chances of direct contacts, making this an infrequent event. Pan-amdoparvovirus detection methods in wide epidemiological investigations can play a crucial role in defining amdoparvoviral ecology and evolution and discovering novel viruses.

Molecular epidemiology of Aleutian mink disease virus causing outbreaks in mink farms from Southwestern Europe: a retrospective study from 2012 to 2019

BACKGROUND

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) causes major economic losses in fur-bearing animal production. The control of most AMDV outbreaks is complex due to the difficulties of establishing the source of infection based only on the available on-farm epidemiological data. In this sense, phylogenetic analysis of the strains present in a farm may help elucidate the origin of the infection and improve the control and biosecurity measures.

OBJECTIVES

This study had the following aims: characterize the AMDV strains from most outbreaks produced at Spanish farms between 2012-2019 at the molecular level, and assess the utility of the combined use of molecular and epidemiological data to track the possible routes of infection.

METHODS

Thirty-seven strains from 17 farms were partially sequenced for the NS1 and VP2 genes and analyzed phylogenetically with other strains described worldwide.

RESULTS

Spanish AMDV strains are clustered in four major clades that generally show a good geographical correlation, confirming that most had been established in Spain a long time ago. The combined study of phylogenetic results and epidemiological information of each farm suggests that most of the AMDV outbreaks since 2012 had been produced by within-farm reservoirs, while a few of them may have been due to the introduction of the virus through international trade.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of phylogenetic inference, together with epidemiological data, helps assess the possible origin of AMDV infections in mink farms and improving the control and prevention of this disease.

Endemic Skunk amdoparvovirus in free-ranging striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in California

The genus Amdoparvovirus includes the newly discovered skunk amdoparvovirus and the well-characterized Aleutian disease virus which causes significant health impacts in farmed mink worldwide. In 2010-2013, an outbreak of fatal amdoparvovirus-associated disease was documented in free-ranging striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) from the San Francisco Bay Area of California. To characterize the geographic distribution, earliest occurrence and abundance of this virus, as well as possible impacts on sympatric mustelids of conservation concern, we tested blood samples from skunks throughout California and fishers (Pekania pennanti) from northern California for amdoparvovirus DNA. Amdoparvovirus DNA was detected in 64.8% of sampled skunks (140/216), and test-positive skunks were distributed widely throughout the state, from as far north as Humboldt County and south to San Diego County. The first test-positive skunks were detected from 2004, prior to the 2010-2013 outbreak. No significant spatial or temporal clustering of infection was detected. Although healthy and clinically ill animals tested positive for amdoparvovirus DNA, histopathologic evaluation of a subset from clinically ill skunks indicated that positive PCR results were associated with pneumonia as well as there being more than one inflammatory type lesion. None of 38 fishers were PCR-positive. Given the widespread geographic distribution and lack of a clear epizootic centre, our results suggest the presence of an endemic skunk-associated amdoparvovirus strain or species. However, if the virus is not host-specific, skunks' ubiquitous presence across rural and urban habitats may pose a risk to susceptible domestic and wild species including mustelids of conservation concern such as fishers and Pacific martens (Martes caurina).

Global phylogenetic analysis of contemporary aleutian mink disease viruses (AMDVs)

BACKGROUND

Aleutian mink disease has major economic consequences on the mink farming industry worldwide, as it causes a disease that affects both the fur quality and the health and welfare of the mink. The virus causing this disease is a single-stranded DNA virus of the genus Amdoparvovirus belonging to the family of Parvoviridae. In Denmark, infection with AMDV has largely been restricted to a region in the northern part of the country since 2001, affecting only 5% of the total Danish mink farms. However, in 2015 outbreaks of AMDV were diagnosed in all parts of the country. Initial analyses revealed that the out breaks were caused by two different strains of AMDV that were significant different from the circulating Danish strains. To track the source of these outbreaks, a major investigation of global AMDV strains was initiated.

METHODS

Samples from 13 different countries were collected and partial NS1 gene was sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analyses.

RESULTS

The analyses revealed that AMDV exhibited substantial genetic diversity. No clear country wise clustering was evident, but exchange of viruses between countries was revealed. One of the Danish outbreaks was caused by a strain of AMDV that closely resembled a strain originating from Sweden. In contrast, we did not identify any potential source for the other and more widespread outbreak strain.

CONCLUSION

To the authors knowledge this is the first major global phylogenetic study of contemporary AMDV partial NS1 sequences. The study proved that partial NS1 sequencing can be used to distinguish virus strains belonging to major clusters. The partial NS1 sequencing can therefore be a helpful tool in combination with epidemiological data, in relation to outbreak tracking. However detailed information on farm to farm transmission requires full genome sequencing.

Outbreak tracking of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) using partial NS1 gene sequencing

Background

Aleutian Mink Disease (AMD) is an infectious disease of mink (Neovison vison) and globally a major cause of economic losses in mink farming. The disease is caused by Aleutian Mink Disease Virus (AMDV) that belongs to the genus Amdoparvovirus within the Parvoviridae family. Several strains have been described with varying virulence and the severity of infection also depends on the host’s genotype and immune status. Clinical signs include respiratory distress in kits and unthriftiness and low quality of the pelts. The infection can also be subclinical.

Systematic control of AMDV in Danish mink farms was voluntarily initiated in 1976. Over recent decades the disease was mainly restricted to the very northern part of the country (Northern Jutland), with only sporadic outbreaks outside this region. Most of the viruses from this region have remained very closely related at the nucleotide level for decades. However, in 2015, several outbreaks of AMDV occurred at mink farms throughout Denmark, and the sources of these outbreaks were not known.

Methods

Partial NS1 gene sequencing, phylogenetic analyses data were utilized along with epidemiological to determine the origin of the outbreaks.

Results

The phylogenetic analyses of partial NS1 gene sequences revealed that the outbreaks were caused by two different clusters of viruses that were clearly different from the strains found in Northern Jutland. These clusters had restricted geographical distribution, and the variation within the clusters was remarkably low. The outbreaks on Zealand were epidemiologically linked and a close sequence match was found to two virus sequences from Sweden. The other cluster of outbreaks restricted to Jutland and Funen were linked to three feed producers (FP) but secondary transmissions between farms in the same geographical area could not be excluded.

Conclusion

This study confirmed that partial NS1 sequencing can be used in outbreak tracking to determine major viral clusters of AMDV. Using this method, two new distinct AMDV clusters with low intra-cluster sequence diversity were identified, and epidemiological data helped to reveal possible ways of viral introduction into the affected herds.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-017-0786-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Hybridization of domestic mink with wild American mink (Neovison vison) in eastern Canada

Farmed American mink (Neovison vison (Schreber, 1777)) pose a risk to biodiversity owing to escape and release from farms. Feral mink may affect native species in locations where American mink are not endemic, such as Europe. In contrast, escaping domestic mink may hybridize with wild mink in North America, leading to introgression of domestic traits via hybrid-mediated gene flow. We tested this idea in eastern Canada, which has a history of mink farming. We sampled known domestic and free-ranging mink, and profiled 508 individuals at 15 microsatellite loci. We found that 33% of free-ranging mink were either escaped domestic individuals, domestic–wild hybrids, or were introgressed to domestic or wild parental groups. The greatest prevalence of free-ranging domestic, hybrid, or introgressed mink (59%) occurred in Nova Scotia, which also had the most mink farms. Historic (1980s or earlier) mink sampled from museums had higher allelic richness and private allelic richness than contemporary wild mink. Domestic mink are artificially selected for traits desired by farmers, and as such, introgression with wild mink may lead to a loss of local adaptation. Our findings demonstrate that continued escape and release of mink could pose risks to the maintenance of genetic integrity in wild mink.

Full genetic characterization and epidemiology of a novel amdoparvovirus in striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Amdoparvovirus is a newly defined parvoviral genus that contains four species (Carnivore amdoparvovirus 1-4), including the well-known Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). Amdoparvoviruses cause an immune-associated and often lethal wasting syndrome in Mustelidae and Caninae hosts. In this study, we molecularly investigated amdoparvoviruses detected in 44 striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) found dead in and around Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Some of the animals exhibited pathological changes compatible with amdoparvovirus-associated disease. The nearly complete genomic sequence was obtained for seven different strains and our analyses show how this virus, which we named skunk amdoparvovirus (SKAV), should be classified as a separate species within the genus (proposed Carnivore amdoparvovirus 5). We detected co-infections, recombinant genomes, at least three separate viral lineages, and preliminary evidence for geographic segregation of lineages. Furthermore, we proved that similar viruses, only partially characterized in previous studies and labeled as AMDV, circulate in skunks from other distant areas of North America (Ontario and California) and found evidence for spillover events in mink (Neovison vison). Although SKAVs are capable of causing disease in infected animals, a high proportion of sub-clinical infections has been observed, suggesting these animals might act as asymptomatic carriers and pose a threat to wild and captive carnivores. Finally, we highlight the need for more specific diagnostic tests and further molecular investigations to clarify the epidemiology and host- and geographical distributions of amdoparvoviruses in terrestrial carnivores, especially because the whole spectrum of viral diversity in this group is likely still unknown.

ENDEMIC INFECTION OF STRANDED SOUTHERN SEA OTTERS (ENHYDRA LUTRIS NEREIS) WITH NOVEL PARVOVIRUS, POLYOMAVIRUS, AND ADENOVIRUS

Over the past century, the southern sea otter (SSO; Enhydra lutris nereis) population has been slowly recovering from near extinction due to overharvest. The SSO is a threatened subspecies under federal law and a fully protected species under California law, US. Through a multiagency collaborative program, stranded animals are rehabilitated and released, while deceased animals are necropsied and tissues are cryopreserved to facilitate scientific study. Here, we processed archival tissues to enrich particle-associated viral nucleic acids, which we randomly amplified and deeply sequenced to identify viral genomes through sequence similarities. Anelloviruses and endogenous retroviral sequences made up over 50% of observed viral sequences. Polyomavirus, parvovirus, and adenovirus sequences made up most of the remaining reads. We characterized and phylogenetically analyzed the full genome of sea otter polyomavirus 1 and the complete coding sequence of sea otter parvovirus 1 and found that the closest known viruses infect primates and domestic pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus), respectively. We tested archived tissues from 69 stranded SSO necropsied over 14 yr (2000-13) by PCR. Polyomavirus, parvovirus, and adenovirus infections were detected in 51, 61, and 29% of examined animals, respectively, with no significant increase in frequency over time, suggesting endemic infection. We found that 80% of tested SSO were infected with at least one of the three DNA viruses, whose tissue distribution we determined in 261 tissue samples. Parvovirus DNA was most frequently detected in mesenteric lymph node, polyomavirus DNA in spleen, and adenovirus DNA in multiple tissues (spleen, retropharyngeal and mesenteric lymph node, lung, and liver). This study describes the virome in tissues of a threatened species and shows that stranded SSO are frequently infected with multiple viruses, warranting future research to investigate associations between these infections and observed lesions.

Driving forces behind the evolution of the Aleutian mink disease parvovirus in the context of intensive farming

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) causes plasmacytosis, an immune complex-associated syndrome that affects wild and farmed mink. The virus can also infect other small mammals (e.g., ferrets, skunks, ermines, and raccoons), but the disease in these hosts has been studied less. In 2007, a mink plasmacytosis outbreak began on the Island of Newfoundland, and the virus has been endemic in farms since then. In this study, we evaluated the molecular epidemiology of AMDV in farmed and wild animals of Newfoundland since before the beginning of the outbreak and investigated the epidemic in a global context by studying AMDV worldwide, thereby examining its diffusion and phylogeography. Furthermore, AMDV evolution was examined in the context of intensive farming, where host population dynamics strongly influence viral evolution. Partial NS1 sequences and several complete genomes were obtained from Newfoundland viruses and analyzed along with numerous sequences from other locations worldwide that were either obtained as part of this study or from public databases. We observed very high viral diversity within Newfoundland and within single farms, where high rates of co-infection, recombinant viruses and polymorphisms were observed within single infected individuals. Worldwide, we documented a partial geographic distribution of strains, where viruses from different countries co-exist within clades but form country-specific subclades. Finally, we observed the occurrence of recombination and the predominance of negative selection pressure on AMDV proteins. A surprisingly low number of immunoepitopic sites were under diversifying pressure, possibly because AMDV gains no benefit by escaping the immune response as viral entry into target cells is mediated through interactions with antibodies, which therefore contribute to cell infection. In conclusion, the high prevalence of AMDV in farms facilitates the establishment of co-infections that can favor the occurrence of recombination and enhance viral diversity. Viruses are then exchanged between different farms and countries and can be introduced into the wild, with the rapidly evolving viruses producing many parallel lineages.

PREVALENCE OF ANTIBODY TO ALEUTIAN MINK DISEASE VIRUS IN EUROPEAN MINK (MUSTELA LUTREOLA) AND AMERICAN MINK (NEOVISON VISON) IN SPAIN

The European mink (Mustela lutreola) has undergone a dramatic decline and is one of the most endangered mammals in the world. The invasive American mink (Neovison vison) is considered the main factor for this decline. However, the American mink's introduction and the subsequent ecological concurrence of the two species cannot solely explain the decline or disappearance of the European mink. Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) is the main health problem in fur farming worldwide, causing varied clinical syndromes that depend on the viral strain and host factors. Infection with AMDV has been speculated to contribute to the decline of the European mink, but a detailed study has not been performed. To assess the potential effects of AMDV infection on the conservation of the European mink, we surveyed AMDV antibody in samples from 492 native European mink and 1,735 feral American mink collected over 16 yr. The antibody prevalence in European mink was 32%. There were no statistically significant differences in antibody prevalence between sexes, among years, or among weight classes. For recaptured European mink, incidence of seroconversion (negative to positive) was 0.46 cases per animal-year at risk. For positive animals, the incidence of conversion from positive to negative was 0.18 cases per animal-year at risk. In 1,735 feral American minks, the overall prevalence was 32.4% and varied among the six wild populations studied. Infection with AMDV appears to be endemic, distributed across the entire ranges of both species, and no effects on the population dynamics of either species were observed.

Amdoparvoviruses in small mammals: expanding our understanding of parvovirus diversity, distribution, and pathology

Many new viruses have been discovered recently, thanks in part to the advent of next-generation sequencing technologies. Among the Parvoviridae, three novel members of the genus Amdoparvovirus have been described in the last 4 years, expanding this genus that had contained a single species since its discovery, Aleutian mink disease virus. The increasing number of molecular and epidemiological studies on these viruses around the world also highlights the growing interest in this genus. Some aspects of amdoparvoviruses have been well characterized, however, many other aspects still need to be elucidated and the most recent reviews on this topic are outdated. We provide here an up-to-date overview of what is known and what still needs to be investigated about these scientifically and clinically relevant animal viruses.

Aleutian mink disease virus in free-ranging mink from Sweden

Aleutian mink disease (AMD) is a chronic viral disease in farmed mink and the virus (AMDV) has been found in many free-ranging mink (Neovison vison) populations in Europe and North America. In this study, AMDV DNA and AMDV antibodies were analysed in 144 free-ranging mink hunted in Sweden. Associations between being AMDV infected (defined as positive for both viral DNA and antibodies) and the weight of the spleen, liver, kidneys, adrenal glands and body condition were calculated and the sequences of ten AMDV isolates were analysed in order to characterize the genetic relationships. In total, 46.1% of the mink were positive for AMDV antibodies and 57.6% were positive for AMDV DNA. Twenty-two percent of the mink tested on both tests (n = 133) had dissimilar results. The risk of having AMDV antibodies or being positive for AMDV DNA clearly increased with age and the majority of the mink that were two years or older were infected. Few macroscopic changes were found upon necropsy. However, the relative weight of the spleen was sexually dimorphic and was found to be slightly, but significantly (p = 0.006), heavier in AMDV infected male mink than uninfected. No association between AMDV infection and body condition, weight of the kidneys, liver or adrenal glands were found. Several different strains of AMDV were found across the country. Two of the AMDV sequences from the very north of Sweden did not group with any of the previously described groups of strains. In summary, AMDV seems to be prevalent in wild mink in Sweden and may subtly influence the weight of the spleen.

Aleutian mink disease virus in striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis): evidence for cross-species spillover

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) causes a parvovirus infection, initially characterized in American mink (Neovison vison), that may have harmful effects on wild populations of susceptible animals. In North America, where American mink are native, the origin, host range, and prevalence of AMDV in wild species is not clear. We studied striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) to determine whether species sympatric with mink are potential reservoirs in the transmission of AMDV to wild mink and mink farms. Antibodies to AMDV were detected in 41% of skunk serum samples (143/347) and AMDV nucleic acids were detected in 32% (14/40) of skunk spleen samples by PCR, indicating that AMDV exposure and infection were frequent in skunks. We detected no AMDV antibodies in 144 raccoon blood samples. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a newly identified AMDV haplogroup consisting of isolates from Ontario skunks and a free-ranging domestic mink from Ontario. Our findings of frequent AMDV infection in skunks, close genetic similarity between skunk and mink AMDV isolates, and evidence of AMDV transmission from skunks to mink support the hypothesis that skunks may be acting as alternative hosts and reservoirs of AMDV to wild mink through cross-species virus spillover.

Molecular epidemiology of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) in Estonia, and a global phylogeny of AMDV

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) causes a severe disease called Aleutian disease (AD). AMDV infects primarily mustelids, but also other mammal species. Recent evidence suggests that AMDV may also affect humans. To examine AMDV in different wild animals and in farmed mink in Estonia, we collected 203 blood samples from eight mammal species in 2007-2010, of which 152 were from species living in the wild (American mink, European mink, pine marten, polecat, raccoon dog, badger, otter, and stone marten) and 51 were from farmed mink. AMDV was tested by PCR amplification of NS1 and VP2 gene fragments, and was only detected in 4 free-ranging (14.8%) and 11 farmed (21.6%) American mink. No other species was positive for AMDV. In addition, the VP2 gene fragment was sequenced for 14 farmed mink isolates from Finland for which NS1 sequences were already publicly available. None of the four Estonian AMDV isolates found in free-ranging mink had identical sequences with farmed mink. In fact, isolates from free-ranging and farmed mink belonged to different clades, suggesting that the analyzed virus isolates circulating in nature are not from escapees of current farms. Two global phylogenies were built: one based on NS1 (336 bp, 151 taxa from nine countries); the other based on a combined NS1-VP2 dataset (871 bp, 40 taxa from six countries). AMDV genotypes did not cluster according to their geographic origin, suggesting that transport of farm mink from multiple source farms has been intense. Nevertheless, one subclade in both phylogenies was comprised solely of isolates from farmed mink, while several subclades comprised isolates only from free-ranging mink, indicating that some isolates may circulate more in the wild and others among farm animals.

Assessing the cryptic invasion of a domestic conspecific: American mink in their native range

Control of invasions is facilitated by their early detection, but this may be difficult when invasions are cryptic due to similarity between invaders and native species. Domesticated conspecifics offer an interesting example of cryptic invasions because they have the ability to hybridize with their native counterparts, and can thus facilitate the introgression of maladaptive genes. We assessed the cryptic invasion of escaped domestic American mink (Neovison vison) within their native range. Feral mink are a known alien invader in many parts of the world, but invasion of their native range is not well understood. We genetically profiled 233 captive domestic mink from different farms in Ontario, Canada and 299 free-ranging mink from Ontario, and used assignments tests to ascertain genetic ancestries of free-ranging animals. We found that 18% of free-ranging mink were either escaped domestic animals or hybrids, and a tree regression showed that these domestic genotypes were most likely to occur south of a latitude of 43.13°N, within the distribution of mink farms in Ontario. Thus, domestic mink appear not to have established populations in Ontario in locations without fur farms. We suspect that maladaptation of domestic mink and outbreeding depression of hybrid and introgressed mink have limited their spread. Mink farm density and proximity to mink farms were not important predictors of domestic genotypes but rather, certain mink farms appeared to be important sources of escaped domestic animals. Our results show that not all mink farms are equal with respect to biosecurity, and thus that the spread of domestic genotypes can be mitigated by improved biosecurity.