The use of antidepressants for headache prophylaxis

The roles of the kynurenine pathway in COVID-19 neuropathogenesis

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the highly contagious respiratory disease Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) that may lead to various neurological and psychological disorders that can be acute, lasting days to weeks or months and possibly longer. The latter is known as long-COVID or more recently post-acute sequelae of COVID (PASC). During acute COVID-19 infection, a strong inflammatory response, known as the cytokine storm, occurs in some patients. The levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interferon-β (IFN-β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) are particularly increased. These cytokines are known to activate the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1), catalysing the first step of tryptophan (Trp) catabolism through the kynurenine pathway (KP) leading to the production of several neurotoxic and immunosuppressive metabolites. There is already data showing elevation in KP metabolites both acutely and in PASC, especially regarding cognitive impairment. Thus, it is likely that KP involvement is significant in SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis especially neurologically.

Acupuncture versus tricyclic antidepressants in the prophylactic treatment of tension-type headaches: an indirect treatment comparison meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Acupuncture showed better improvement than sham acupuncture in reducing attack frequency of tension-type headache (TTH), but its effectiveness relative to first-line drugs for TTH is unknown, which impedes the recommendation of acupuncture for patients who are intolerant to drugs for TTH. We aimed to estimate the relative effectiveness between acupuncture and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) through indirect treatment comparison (ITC) meta-analysis.

METHODS

We searched Ovid Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library from database inception until April 13, 2023. Randomized controlled trials of TCAs or acupuncture in the prevention of TTH in adults were included. The primary outcome was headache frequency. The secondary outcomes were headache intensity, responder rate, and adverse event rate. Bayesian random-effect models were used to perform ITC meta-analysis, and confidence of evidence was evaluated by using the GRADE approach.

RESULTS

A total of 34 trials involving 4426 participants were included. Acupuncture had similar effect with TCAs in decreasing TTH frequency (amitriptyline: mean difference [MD] -1.29, 95% CI -5.28 to 3.02; amitriptylinoxide: MD -0.05, 95% CI -6.86 to 7.06) and reducing TTH intensity (amitriptyline: MD 2.35, 95% CI -1.20 to 5.78; clomipramine: MD 1.83, 95% CI -4.23 to 8.20). Amitriptyline had a higher rate of adverse events than acupuncture (OR 4.73, 95% CI 1.42 to 14.23).

CONCLUSION

Acupuncture had similar effect as TCAs in reducing headache frequency of TTH, and acupuncture had a lower adverse events rate than amitriptyline, as shown by very low certainty of evidence.

Research hotspots and trends on acupuncture treatment for headache: a bibliometric analysis from 2003 to 2023

Background

While acupuncture treatment has gained extensive usage in addressing headaches, there remains a notable gap in the literature analysis for this field. Therefore, this study aims to conduct a literature review using Citespace, VOSviewer, and Bibliometrix, aiming to examine the current status, strengths, and potential future directions in the utilization of acupuncture for headache treatment.

Methods

Relevant literature on acupuncture treatment for headaches between 2003 and 2023 was retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS) core database. Utilizing CiteSpace 6.1.R6, VOSviewer 1.6.18, and Bibliometrix 4.1.4, we conducted bibliometric analyses across various categories, including countries/regions, institutions, authors, journals, references, and keywords.

Results

A total of 808 research reports were included. China and the United States have significantly contributed to this field. Chengdu University of Chinese Medicine holds the record for the highest number of published papers. Liu Lu has the highest publication output, while Linde K has the highest citation rate. MEDICINE leads in publication frequency, while CEPHALALGIA holds the highest citation rate. The Long-term Effect of Acupuncture for Migraine Prophylaxis a Randomized Clinical Trial is the most cited reference. Migraine was the most researched type. Filiform needle acupuncture was the most widely used stimulation method. The safety and efficacy of acupuncture have received significant attention. Modern mechanism research shows that depression, brain functional connectivity, and neuroimaging technology have become research hotspots in the acupuncture treatment of headaches.

Conclusion

Acupuncture treatment for headaches has established a stable trend with a promising developmental trajectory. Research in this field mainly focuses on different acupuncture prevention and treatment for various types of headaches, the safety and efficacy of acupuncture, etc. Research on the mechanism of action mainly focuses on interpreting bidirectional and holistic regulation between pain and emotion by acupuncture and the regulation of brain function connection and neuroimaging technology by acupuncture. Future research should expand on the advantages and indications of acupuncture treatment for different headaches and their modern mechanisms.

Psychosomatic symptoms related to exacerbation of fatigue in patients with medically unexplained symptoms

Background

Medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) are common conditions that cause various somatic complaints and are often avoided in primary care. Fatigue frequently occurs in patients with MUS. However, the somatic and psychiatric symptoms associated with fatigue in patients with MUS are unknown. This study aimed to clarify the intensity of fatigue and the related somatic and psychiatric symptoms in patients with MUS.

Methods

A total of 120 patients with MUS aged 20-64 years who visited the Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Toho University Medical Center Omori Hospital, between January and March 2021 were considered. The participants' medical conditions were assessed using the Chalder Fatigue Scale (CFS), Somatic Symptom Scale-8 (SSS-8), and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). We estimated the relationship between CFS, SSS-8 and HADS by using Spearman's rank correlation. Additionally, linear multiple regression analysis with CFS as the objective variable was used to identify symptoms related to fatigue.

Results

Fatigue was significantly associated with all symptoms observed (p < 0.01). Linear multiple regression analysis revealed that "dizziness," "headache," and "Sleep medication" were extracted as relevant somatic symptoms (p < 0.05), independent of anxiety and depression, which were already known to be associated with fatigue in MUS.

Conclusion

The intensity of anxiety, depression, headache, and dizziness were all associated with the intensity of fatigue in MUS patients. On the contrary, sleeping medication was associated with lower levels of fatigue in MUS.

Cognitive impairment in a classical rat model of chronic migraine may be due to alterations in hippocampal synaptic plasticity and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits

Although migraine is a major global public health problem, its impact on cognitive abilities remains controversial. Thus, the present study investigated the effects of repeated administration of inflammatory soup to the dura of rats, over three weeks, on spatial cognition, hippocampal synaptic plasticity, and the expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits. Additionally, low doses of amitriptyline (5 mg/kg) were applied to assess its therapeutic effects. The inflammatory soup group exhibited significant reductions in the cutaneous stimulation threshold, presence of mild cognitive impairment, and decreased long-term potentiation in right hippocampus. However, amitriptyline improved pain behaviors, enhanced cognitive function, and increased synaptic plasticity in the inflammatory soup rats. On the other hand, the administration of amitriptyline to normal rats negatively influenced synaptic plasticity and reduced the expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits. The present results indicate that inflammatory soup-induced dural nociception led to impairments in spatial cognition that could be attributed to reductions in hippocampal long-term potentiation and the decreased expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits.

Evidence of new-onset depression among persons with migraine after discontinuing antidepressants

Antidepressants have been hypothesized to cause tardive dysphoria-the delayed development of negative emotional symptoms. We assessed the risk of tardive dysphoria in a cohort of persons with migraine taking anti-migraine antidepressants with no known diagnosis of any mood or anxiety disorder. We included all outpatient encounters in a university hospital system for migraine from January 2008 through October 2018, excluding subjects with prior psychiatric diagnoses. Kaplan-Meier survival curves and multivariable Cox proportional hazards analyses were conducted. 13,048 subjects were included; 1191 took an antidepressant; 402 discontinued an antidepressant. In multivariable analyses examining the first year after exposure, antidepressant use was not significantly associated with risk of a depression, any mood disorder (including depression, mania, and other mood disorders), or anxiety. Antidepressant discontinuation was significantly associated with increased risk of depression, but not any mood disorder or anxiety. Among persons with migraine with no known psychiatric diagnosis, antidepressants did not appear to be associated with indicators of tardive dysphoria. Antidepressant discontinuation, however, was associated with increased risk of a depression diagnosis.

Painful musculosceletal disorders and depression among working aged migraineurs

OBJECTIVE

Musculoskeletal disorders and depression are common among migraineurs. The aim of our study was to evaluate the occurrence of these disorders among working aged migraineurs.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The risk for fibromyalgia, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), osteoarthrosis (OA), sciatic syndrome, and the occurrence of depression was studied among cases who reported about these conditions and migraine in working aged Finnish population in The Health and Social Support Study (HeSSup) based on postal questionnaire in 2012. Group differences were tested by chi-square test. Odds ratios (ORs with 95% CI) adjusted for age, gender, education level and depression were calculated with logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

Total of 1505 migraineurs (13%) and 8092 controls were included among the 11 596 responders in 2012. Age and gender adjusted ORs, 2.37 (95% CI 1.81-3.09) for fibromyalgia, 1.46 (1.10-1.95) for RA, 1.58 (1.38-1.80) for OA, and 2.09 (1.84-2.37) for sciatic syndrome, were significant. At least moderate depression was more common among migraineurs (7.3%) than among controls (3.4%) (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Recognition of comorbid musculoskeletal disorders and mood disorders among migraineurs needs targeted outreach in working aged population. The acute and preventive treatments to control for neuronal sensitization in migraine and comorbid pain disorders may benefit of individual treatment plan and tailored use of antidepressants.

Association of mitochondrial displacement loop polymorphisms with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome: A preliminary study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the mitochondrial displacement loop (D-loop) were associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

METHODS

Altogether 40 participants were recruited and classified into three groups, including 20 that fulfilled the Rome III criteria for diarrhea-predominant IBS (IBS-D), 10 with constipation-predominant IBS (IBS-C), and 10 healthy volunteers (controls). DNA was extracted from biopsy specimens of the colon obtained during routine colonoscopies. The mitochondrial D-loop was sequenced and variants were identified in comparison with the reference sequence from GenBank. We searched GenBank and MITOMAP to determine whether a variant could be considered an SNP.

RESULTS

No significant differences in sex, age and body mass index were found among the three groups. The average numbers of SNPs in the IBS-D, IBS-C and control groups were 12.2 ± 2.7, 9.8 ± 1.8 and 9.9 ± 2.1, respectively. The frequency of SNPs was significantly higher in the IBS-D group than in the IBS-C group and controls (P < 0.05). No significant difference was found between the latter two groups. Each SNP was compared among the three groups and the frequency of 199C was found to be significantly higher in the control group than in the IBS-D group (P = 0.03), but no significant difference in its frequency was found between the IBS-C group and controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with IBS-D have a higher incidence of SNPs in the mitochondrial D-loop than controls. The genotype 199C may be associated with a lower risk of IBS-D.

Empirically Supported Use of Psychiatric Medications in Adolescents and Adults with IBD

BACKGROUND

The use of psychotropic medications, particularly antidepressants, is common in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in spite of a lack of their robust efficacy in this population. This review provides an overview of the use trends of different classes of antidepressant and anti-anxiety medication and their effects on mood, nervous system function, gastrointestinal physiology and immunity drawing from the literature available in the general population, other medical conditions, and when available, patients with IBD. It also covers the evidence base for the actions, efficacy, and potential complications of antidepressants organized by different classes.

METHODS

We conducted a PubMed search of articles relating the different drug classes probed to the terms above in different populations of interest. All types of articles were accepted including case reports and series, open and randomized trials, reviews, and expert opinion. We also examined the reference lists of the publications found.

RESULTS

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are the most commonly prescribed agents for anxiety and depression in patients with IBD, though their efficacy for these conditions in the general population are mild to moderate at best. SSRIs are generally well tolerated, though at higher doses, they, like most antidepressant classes, can be associated with activation, serotonergic syndrome, and increased suicidal ideation. TCAs have many more serious side effects but have some shown efficacy for functional GI symptoms. A newer class, the serotonin noradrenergic reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), can be effective for refractory depression, anxiety and chronic pain syndromes with a side effect profile similar to both SSRIs and more mild manifestations of TCAs. Mirtazapine has moderate efficacy for depression if sedation and weight gain side effects are tolerated and some small support for use in nausea and vomiting. Bupropion targets dopamine and noradrenaline reuptake and has moderate efficacy for depression, and some small support for use in fatigue and smoking cessation. Buspirone has an indication for generalized anxiety disorder though studies show only a minimal benefit. It has some growing evidence for use in functional dyspepsia. Most of these agents have physiological effects on the brain, immune system, and gastrointestinal tract (with the exception of bupropion) hence their therapeutic and side effects manifested in these systems.

CONCLUSION

Antidepressant medications are frequently prescribed for depression, anxiety disorders, and chronic pain syndromes, but overall support for their efficacy is modest at best. Psychological interventions have growing support for having much more robust effects without the side effects of antidepressants and should be considered first-line treatment or at least an adjunct to psychotropic medications for these conditions.

[Formalized consensus: clinical practice recommendations for the management of the migraine in African adult patients]

Migraine is a primary headache disorder (according to the latest International Headache Society criteria) affecting approximately 8% of African population. Women are more often affected than men and attacks usually occur before the age of 40 years Although some treatments, hygienic-dietary measures and other non-pharmacological methods can reduce the intensity and frequency of attacks, medicinal treatment of migraine attack is often necessary. Availability of treatments and access to care differ in Africa and led to the implementation of the first expert consensus recommendations for the management of the migraine in african adult patients. This multinational collaborative study is intended for health practitioners. It aims to provide 16 simple, evidence-based recommendations and is adapted to african medical practice.

Roads Less Traveled: Sexual Dimorphism and Mast Cell Contributions to Migraine Pathology

Migraine is a common, little understood, and debilitating disease. It is much more prominent in women than in men (~2/3 are women) but the reasons for female preponderance are not clear. Migraineurs frequently experience severe comorbidities, such as allergies, depression, irritable bowel syndrome, and others; many of the comorbidities are more common in females. Current treatments for migraine are not gender specific, and rarely are migraine and its comorbidities considered and treated by the same specialist. Thus, migraine treatments represent a huge unmet medical need, which will only be addressed with greater understanding of its underlying pathophysiology. We discuss the current knowledge about sex differences in migraine and its comorbidities, and focus on the potential role of mast cells (MCs) in both. Sex-based differences in pain recognition and drug responses, fluid balance, and the blood–brain barrier are recognized but their impact on migraine is not well studied. Furthermore, MCs are well recognized for their prominent role in allergies but much less is known about their contributions to pain pathways in general and migraine specifically. MC-neuron bidirectional communication uniquely positions these cells as potential initiators and/or perpetuators of pain. MCs can secrete nociceptor sensitizing and activating agents, such as serotonin, prostaglandins, histamine, and proteolytic enzymes that can also activate the pain-mediating transient receptor potential vanilloid channels. MCs express receptors for both estrogen and progesterone that induce degranulation upon binding. Furthermore, environmental estrogens, such as Bisphenol A, activate MCs in preclinical models but their impact on pain pathways or migraine is understudied. We hope that this discussion will encourage scientists and physicians alike to bridge the knowledge gaps linking sex, MCs, and migraine to develop better, more comprehensive treatments for migraine patients.

Are migraine and tension-type headache diagnostic types or points on a severity continuum? An exploration of the latent taxometric structure of headache

The objective of this study was to assess whether migraine and tension-type headache (TTH) are best viewed as discrete entities or points on a severity continuum using taxometric analysis. Historically, classification systems have conceptualized the primary headache disorders of migraine and TTH as fundamentally different disorders that are differentiated by their characteristic symptom profiles and, as such, imply differing pathophysiologies and required treatments. Despite this categorical nosology, findings continue to emerge suggesting that migraine and TTH instead reflect dimensions of severity within the same headache construct. However, few studies have assessed this issue using taxometric statistical analyses or investigated how this taxonomic structure varies as a function of age and headache frequency. We conducted a latent-mode factor analysis of headache symptomatology obtained from 3449 individuals with headache from 2 previous, large-scale cross-sectional studies of primary headache sufferers (Martin et al., 2005, and Smitherman and Kolivas, 2013). Stratified taxometric analyses suggest that the validity of a categorical vs dimensional classification varies as a function of sample characteristics. Specifically, graphical results revealed that high headache frequency (>15 d/mo) and younger age (<24 years old) were associated with unimodal distributions suggestive of a dimensional construct of primary headache, whereas lower headache frequency and older age were associated with bimodal distributions characteristic of discrete diagnostic entities. Conceptualizing primary headache as a severity continuum was supported for young adults and those with frequent headaches. The distinctions of a categorical classification system were supported for adults (>24 years old) and those with infrequent headache.

Vestibular migraine in an otolaryngology clinic: prevalence, associated symptoms, and prophylactic medication effectiveness

OBJECTIVE

To assess the prevalence of vestibular migraine (VM) in patients consulting to an otolaryngology clinic, the neuro-otological associated symptoms, and the effect of prophylactic antimigrainous medication on VM symptom improvement.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective chart review.

SETTING

Tertiary referral otolaryngology clinic.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

We used the diagnostic criteria from the Bárány Society and the International Headache Society to allocate patients to a subgroup: VM, possible VM, and atypical VM.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

The prevalence of VM, percentages of associated neurotological symptoms, and percentages of effectiveness of prophylactic medication.

RESULTS

Sixty-five (16%) patients were selected from the total patient population (n = 407) from which 4.2% were assigned to the definite VM group, 5.7% to the probable VM group, and 6.1% to the atypical VM group. We found a significantly different distribution between the groups for photophobia (p = 0.035), ear pressure (p = 0.023), and scotoma (p = 0.015). Thirty patients were administered with flunarizine and 68% responded with an improvement in VM symptoms (p < 0.001). For propranolol, 31 patients were treated and there was an improvement of symptoms in 73% (p < 0.001). Remarkable was the fact that these percentages were not significantly different between the subgroups.

CONCLUSION

VM is a common disorder presenting in a dizziness clinic, and detailed history taking is important to assess VM-associated symptoms and thus to prevent underdiagnosis. The latter is very important because our study shows that the majority of patients, regardless of VM subtype, can benefit from a prophylactic treatment, but further prospective studies are necessary.

Persistent orthostatic headache without intracranial hypotension: which treatment?

Orthostatic headache can be the leading symptom of intracranial hypotension, however, not all orthostatic headaches are due to cerebrospinal fluid leaks and these forms can be a clinical problem, especially for treatment. Aim of this study was to review patients with persistent orthostatic headache in whom a detailed head and spinal MRI follow-up did not reveal any sign of intracranial hypotension and to evaluate which treatment can be considered the first choice. Patients admitted to our headache center for evaluation of persistent orthostatic headache and followed after first admission with clinical and neuroradiological controls were systematically reviewed. 11 patients (7 M, 4 F) followed in a period lasted from 10 months up to 2 years were studied. Six patients (54, 5 %) reported a MRI performed previously elsewhere with a suspect diagnosis of intracranial hypotension which was not confirmed at MRI at our hospital such as during the radiological follow-up. Three patients (27.2 %) had developed orthostatic headache short after a neck or head trauma with no evidence of neuroradiological pathological signs and two patients (18 %) had a previous history of psychiatric disorder. We administrated antidepressants in five patients, atypical neuroleptic in three patients, association of antidepressant and antipsychotic in one patient and muscle relaxants in two cases. All patients showed a certain improvement of headache in the weeks after introduction of the pharmacological treatment; six (54, 5 %) had pain relief during the follow-up and five (45, 5 %) were pain free at the last clinical control. We found out that patients with the best outcome were the ones treated with antidepressants. Persistent orthostatic headache without any neuroradiological sign of intracranial hypotension is a challenging problem for clinicians. Although the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3 beta version) criteria suggests the possibility of epidural blood patch in orthostatic headache without causes, we believe that a pharmacological treatment tailored on each patient should be always considered and antidepressants can be the first choice.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) for the prevention of tension-type headache in adults

BACKGROUND

This is an updated version of the Cochrane review published in 2005 on selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for preventing migraine and tension-type headache. The original review has been split in two parts and this review now only regards tension-type headache prevention. Another updated review covers migraine. Tension-type headache is the second most common disorder worldwide and has high social and economic relevance. As serotonin and other neurotransmitters may have a role in pain mechanisms, SSRIs and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) have been evaluated for the prevention of tension-type headache.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the efficacy and tolerability of SSRIs and SNRIs compared to placebo and other active interventions in the prevention of episodic and chronic tension-type headache in adults.

SEARCH METHODS

For the original review, we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL 2003, Issue 4), MEDLINE (1966 to January 2004), EMBASE (1994 to May 2003), and Headache Quarterly (1990 to 2003). For this update, we revised the original search strategy to reflect the broader type of intervention (SSRIs and SNRIs). We searched CENTRAL (2014, Issue 10) on the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE (1946 to November 2014), EMBASE (1980 to November 2014), and PsycINFO (1987 to November 2014). We also checked the reference lists of retrieved articles and searched trial registries for ongoing trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials comparing SSRIs or SNRIs with any type of control intervention in participants 18 years and older, of either sex, with tension-type headache.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently extracted data (headache frequency, index, intensity, and duration; use of symptomatic/analgesic medication; quality of life; and withdrawals) and assessed the risk of bias of trials. The primary outcome is tension-type headache frequency, measured by the number of headache attacks or the number of days with headache per evaluation period.

MAIN RESULTS

The original review included six studies on tension-type headache. We now include eight studies with a total of 412 participants with chronic forms of tension-type headache. These studies evaluated five SSRIs (citalopram, sertraline, fluoxetine, paroxetine, fluvoxamine) and one SNRI (venlafaxine). The two new studies included in this update are placebo controlled trials, one evaluated sertraline and one venlafaxine. Six studies, already included in the previous version of this review, compared SSRIs to other antidepressants (amitriptyline, desipramine, sulpiride, mianserin). Most of the included studies had methodological and/or reporting shortcomings and lacked adequate power. Follow-up ranged between two and four months.Six studies explored the effect of SSRIs or SNRIs on tension-type headache frequency, the primary endpoint. At eight weeks of follow-up, we found no difference when compared to placebo (two studies, N = 127; mean difference (MD) -0.96, 95% confidence interval (CI) -3.95 to 2.03; I(2)= 0%) or amitriptyline (two studies, N = 152; MD 0.76, 95% CI -2.05 to 3.57; I(2)= 44%).When considering secondary outcomes, SSRIs reduce the symptomatic/analgesic medication use for acute headache attacks compared to placebo (two studies, N = 118; MD -1.87, 95% CI -2.09 to -1.65; I(2)= 0%). However, amitriptyline appeared to reduce the intake of analgesic more efficiently than SSRIs (MD 4.98, 95% CI 1.12 to 8.84; I(2)= 0%). The studies supporting these findings were considered at unclear risk of bias. We found no differences compared to placebo or other antidepressants in headache duration and intensity.SSRIs or SNRI were generally more tolerable than tricyclics. However, the two groups did not differ in terms of number of participants who withdrew due to adverse events or for other reasons (four studies, N = 257; odds ratio (OR) 1.04; 95% CI 0.41 to 2.60; I(2)= 25% and OR 1.55, 95% CI 0.71 to 3.38; I(2)= 0%).We did not find any study comparing SSRIs or SNRIs with pharmacological treatments other than antidepressants (e.g. botulinum toxin) or non-drug therapies (e.g. psycho-behavioural treatments, manual therapy, acupuncture).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Since the last version of this review, the new included studies have not added high quality evidence to support the use of SSRIs or venlafaxine (a SNRI) as preventive drugs for tension-type headache. Over two months of treatment, SSRIs or venlafaxine are no more effective than placebo or amitriptyline in reducing headache frequency in patients with chronic tension-type headache. SSRIs seem to be less effective than tricyclic antidepressants in terms of intake of analgesic medications. Tricyclic antidepressants are associated with more adverse events; however, this did not cause a greater number of withdrawals. No reliable information is available at longer follow-up. Our conclusion is that the use of SSRIs and venlafaxine for the prevention of chronic tension-type headache is not supported by evidence.

Increased prevalence of two mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in functional disease: Are we describing different parts of an energy-depleted elephant?

About 20% of the population suffers from "functional syndromes". Since these syndromes overlap greatly in terms of co-morbidity, pathophysiology (including aberrant autonomic activity) and treatment responses, common predisposing genetic factors have been postulated. We had previously showed that two common mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms at positions 16519 and 3010 are statistically associated with the functional syndromes of migraine, cyclic vomiting syndrome and non-specific abdominal pain. Herein, among individuals with mtDNA haplogroup H (HgH), the presence of these two mtDNA polymorphisms were ascertained in additional functional syndromes: chronic fatigue syndrome, complex regional pain syndrome, sudden infant death syndrome, and major depressive disorder. Polymorphic prevalence rates were compared between disease and control groups, and within each disease group in participants with and without specific clinical findings. In all four conditions, one or both of the polymorphisms was significantly associated with the respective condition and/or co-morbid functional symptomatology. Thus, we conclude that these two mtDNA polymorphisms likely modify risk for the development of multiple functional syndromes, likely constituting a proportion of the postulated common genetic factor, at least among individuals with HgH. Pathophysiology likely involves broad effects on the autonomic nervous system.

Amitriptyline and aerobic exercise or amitriptyline alone in the treatment of chronic migraine: a randomized comparative study

To compare the preventive treatment benefits of amitriptyline and aerobic exercise or amitriptyline alone in patients with chronic migraine.

METHOD

Sixty patients, both genders, aged between 18 and 50 years, with a diagnosis of chronic migraine, were randomized in groups called amitriptyline and aerobic exercise or amitriptyline alone. The following parameters were evaluated: headache frequency, intensity and duration of headache, days of the analgesic medication use, body mass index (BMI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) scores.

RESULTS

In the evaluated parameters, was observed decrease in headache frequency (p=0.001), moderate intensity (p=0.048), in headache duration (p=0.001), the body mass index (p=0.001), Beck Depression Inventory (p=0.001) and Beck Anxiety Inventory scores (p=0.001), when groups were compared in the end of third month.

CONCLUSION

In this study, the amitriptyline was an effective treatment for chronic migraine, but its efficacy was increased when combined with aerobic exercise.

Transcriptional evidence for the role of chronic venlafaxine treatment in neurotrophic signaling and neuroplasticity including also Glutamatergic [corrected] - and insulin-mediated neuronal processes

OBJECTIVES

Venlafaxine (VLX), a serotonine-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, is one of the most commonly used antidepressant drugs in clinical practice for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Despite being more potent than its predecessors, similarly to them, the therapeutical effect of VLX is visible only 3-4 weeks after the beginning of treatment. Furthermore, recent papers show that antidepressants, including also VLX, enhance the motor recovery after stroke even in non depressed persons. In the present, transcriptomic-based study we looked for changes in gene expressions after a long-term VLX administration.

METHODS

Osmotic minipumps were implanted subcutaneously into Dark Agouti rats providing a continuous (40 mg/kg/day) VLX delivery for three weeks. Frontal regions of the cerebral cortex were isolated and analyzed using Illumina bead arrays to detect genes showing significant chances in expression. Gene set enrichment analysis was performed to identify specific regulatory networks significantly affected by long term VLX treatment.

RESULTS

Chronic VLX administration may have an effect on neurotransmitter release via the regulation of genes involved in vesicular exocytosis and receptor endocytosis (such as Kif proteins, Myo5a, Sv2b, Syn2 or Synj2). Simultaneously, VLX activated the expression of genes involved in neurotrophic signaling (Ntrk2, Ntrk3), glutamatergic transmission (Gria3, Grin2b and Grin2a), neuroplasticity (Camk2g/b, Cd47), synaptogenesis (Epha5a, Gad2) and cognitive processes (Clstn2). Interestingly, VLX increased the expression of genes involved in mitochondrial antioxidant activity (Bcl2 and Prdx1). Additionally, VLX administration also modulated genes related to insulin signaling pathway (Negr1, Ppp3r1, Slc2a4 and Enpp1), a mechanism that has recently been linked to neuroprotection, learning and memory.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results strongly suggest that chronic VLX treatment improves functional reorganization and brain plasticity by influencing gene expression in regulatory networks of motor cortical areas. These results are consonant with the synaptic (network) hypothesis of depression and antidepressant-induced motor recovery after stroke.

Drug repositioning: playing dirty to kill pain

The number of approved new molecular entity drugs has been decreasing as the pharmaceutical company investment in research and development is increasing. As we face this painful crisis, called an innovation gap, there is increasing awareness that development of new uses of existing drugs may be a powerful tool to help overcome this obstacle because it takes too long, costs too much and can be risky to release drugs developed de novo. Consequently, drug repositioning is emerging in different therapeutic areas, including the pain research area. Worldwide, pain is the main reason for seeking healthcare, and pain relief represents an unmet global clinical need. Therefore, development of analgesics with better efficacy, safety and cost effectiveness is of paramount importance. Despite the remarkable advancement in research on cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying pain pathophysiology over the past three decades, target-based therapeutic opportunities have not been pursued to the same extent. Phenotypic screening remains a more powerful tool for drug development than target-based screening so far. It sounds somewhat heretical, but some multi-action drugs, rather than very selective ones, have been developed intentionally. In the present review, we first critically discuss the utility of drug repositioning for analgesic drug development and then show examples of 'old' drugs that have been successfully repositioned or that are under investigation for their analgesic actions. We conclude that drug repositioning should be more strongly encouraged to help build a bridge between basic research and pain relief worldwide.

Antidepressant use and risk for preeclampsia

BACKGROUND

Prior studies suggest that women who use antidepressants during pregnancy have an increased risk for preeclampsia, yet the comparative safety of specific antidepressants remains unclear. US nationwide Medicaid Analytic eXtract (MAX) data have not been used to study medication safety during pregnancy.

METHODS

We identified 100,942 pregnant women with depression from 2000 to 2007 MAX data. We used pharmacy dispensing records to ascertain exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), serotonin-norepenephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), tricyclic, bupropion, other antidepressant monotherapy or polytherapy, and specific antidepressants, during the second trimester and first half of the third trimester. Relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were adjusted for delivery year, preeclampsia risk factors, depression severity proxies, other antidepressant indications, other medications, and healthcare utilization.

RESULTS

The risk of preeclampsia was 5.4% among women with depression and no antidepressant exposure. Compared with these women, the risk for preeclampsia was higher among those receiving SNRI (RR: 1.52, 95% CI = 1.26-1.83) and tricyclic monotherapy (RR: 1.62, 95% CI = 1.23-2.12), but not SSRI monotherapy (RR: 1.00, 95% CI = 0.93-1.07) or other antidepressants. Compared with women receiving SSRI monotherapy, preeclampsia risk was higher among women with SNRI (RR: 1.54, 95% CI = 1.28-1.86) and tricyclic (RR: 1.64, 95% CI = 1.25-2.16) monotherapy. None of the specific SSRIs was associated with preeclampsia. The RR with venlafaxine was 1.57 (95% CI = 1.29-1.91) and with amitriptyline 1.72 (95% CI = 1.24-2.40).

CONCLUSIONS

In this population, SNRIs and tricyclics were associated with a higher risk of preeclampsia than SSRIs.

Understanding the pharmacology of headache

Migraine continues to be the most common of the debilitating headaches. Existing acute headache treatments are not always satisfactory, and current research is focussed on targeting neuroinflammatory pathways with drugs that are devoid of vascular action. Current prophylactic drugs are largely centred around antihypertensive, anticonvulsant and antidepressant drugs, although not all drugs of all sub-classes in these categories are effective. Selective agents which target the neuroinflammatory process including targets such as calcitonin gene related peptide, and PANNEXIN 1 may have clinical utility.

Interaction of valproic acid and amitriptyline: analysis of therapeutic drug monitoring data under naturalistic conditions

Amitriptyline (AMI) and valproic acid (VPA) are common psychotropic drugs which are frequently used in psychiatry and also administered in neurology or anesthesia in the absence of a psychiatric indication. On the basis of the case of a 73-year-old man with therapy-resistant major depressive episode who experienced anticholinergic delirium after adding VPA to AMI, we retrospectively analyzed therapeutic drug monitoring data of the years 2008 to 2010. We assessed cases receiving a combination of AMI and VPA, and obtained a control sample of AMI patients without VPA which were matched for sex, age, daily dose, and comedication. Both samples were compared regarding the serum levels of AMI and nortriptyline (NOR) as well as the ratio of NOR and AMI with the Mann-Whitney U test. The combination of AMI and VPA led to a remarkable increase of AMI and NOR serum levels. When comparing 33 patients who received comedication with VPA versus 33 matched controls, the total concentration by combining mean AMI and NOR serum levels (237.1 [119.9] vs 126.4 [52.8] ng/mL) and NOR/AMI ratio (1.300 [0.905] vs 0.865 [0.455]) was significantly higher. Both AMI and VPA are widely prescribed drugs. A combination of both is common for psychiatric or neurologic patients. A cautious dosing of AMI with VPA comedication is advisable, and therapeutic drug monitoring should be performed because this combination may lead to a remarkable increase of AMI and NOR serum levels.

Effect of amitriptyline on tetrodotoxin-resistant Nav1.9 currents in nociceptive trigeminal neurons

Background

Amitriptyline (AMI) is tricyclic antidepressant that has been widely used to manage various chronic pains such as migraines. Its efficacy is attributed to its blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs). However, the effects of AMI on the tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-r) sodium channel Na_v1.9 currents have been unclear to present.

Results

Using a whole-cell patch clamp technique, this study showed that AMI efficiently inhibited Na_v1.9 currents in a concentration-dependent manner and had an IC₅₀ of 15.16 μM in acute isolated trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons of the rats. 10 μM AMI significantly shifted the steady-state inactivation of Na_v1.9 channels in the hyperpolarizing direction without affecting voltage-dependent activation. Surprisingly, neither 10 nor 50 μM AMI caused a use-dependent blockade of Na_v1.9 currents elicited by 60 pulses at 1 Hz.

Conclusion

These data suggest that AMI is a state-selective blocker of Na_v1.9 channels in rat nociceptive trigeminal neurons, which likely contributes to the efficacy of AMI in treating various pains, including migraines.

Antidepressant use among survivors of childhood, adolescent and young adult cancer: a report of the Childhood, Adolescent and Young Adult Cancer Survivor (CAYACS) Research Program

BACKGROUND

Although survivors of childhood, adolescent, and young adult (AYA) cancer are at risk for late psychological sequelae, it is unclear if they are more likely to be prescription antidepressant users than their peers.

PROCEDURE

All 5-year survivors of childhood or AYA cancer diagnosed before age 25 years in British Columbia from 1970 to 1995 were identified. Those with complete follow-up in the provincial health insurance registry from 2001 to 2004 were included (n = 2,389). A birth-cohort and gender-matched set of population controls 10 times the size of the survivor group was randomly selected (n = 23,890). All prescriptions filled between 2001 and 2004 were identified through linkage to the provincial prescription drug administrative database. Logistic regression analyses determined the impact of cancer survivorship on the likelihood of ever filling an antidepressant prescription.

RESULTS

After adjusting for sociodemographic factors, survivors of childhood and AYA cancer were more likely to have filled an antidepressant prescription compared to controls (OR 1.21, 95% CI 1.09-1.35). Cancer survivors had an increased likelihood of using all categories of antidepressants, and of using drugs from two or more antidepressant categories, compared to peers (OR 1.31, 95% CI 1.11-1.55 [≥2 antidepressant categories]). Treatment was not a significant predictor of antidepressant use. Female survivors, those in young adulthood and those more than 20 years post-treatment had increased antidepressant use.

CONCLUSIONS

Survivors of childhood and AYA cancer are more likely to fill antidepressant prescriptions compared to peer controls. This may indirectly reflect an increased underlying prevalence of mental health conditions among survivors.

Migraine and depression: bidirectional co-morbidities?

Even if the bidirectional co-morbidity between migraine and depression has been supported by epidemiological and genetic studies, many aspects of this association have not been completely understood. This may be due to the heterogeneous character of migraine and depression as well as to their multifactorial pathogenesis. In this review, we have briefly reported the more recent findings published about the co-morbidity between migraine and depression by discussing the above reported issues and the relative clinical and therapeutic implications.

Topical analgesics in the management of acute and chronic pain

Oral analgesics are commonly prescribed for the treatment of acute and chronic pain, but these agents often produce adverse systemic effects, which sometimes are severe. Topical analgesics offer the potential to provide the same analgesic relief provided by oral analgesics but with minimal adverse systemic effects. This article describes the results of a systematic review of the efficacy of topical analgesics in the management of acute and chronic pain conditions. A literature search of MEDLINE/PubMed was conducted using the keywords topical analgesic AND chronic pain OR acute pain OR neuropathic pain and focused only on individual clinical trials published in English-language journals. The search identified 92 articles, of which 65 were eligible for inclusion in the review. The most commonly studied topical analgesics were nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (n=27), followed by lidocaine (n=9), capsaicin (n=6), amitriptyline (n=5), glyceryl trinitrate (n=3), opioids (n=2), menthol (n=2), pimecrolimus (n=2), and phenytoin (n=2). The most common indications were acute soft tissue injuries (n=18), followed by neuropathic pain (n=17), experimental pain (n=6), osteoarthritis and other chronic joint-related conditions (n=5), skin or leg ulcers (n=5), and chronic knee pain (n=2). Strong evidence was identified for the use of topical diclofenac and topical ibuprofen in the treatment of acute soft tissue injuries or chronic joint-related conditions, such as osteoarthritis. Evidence also supports the use of topical lidocaine in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy. Currently, limited evidence is available to support the use of other topical analgesics in acute and chronic pain.

Panic disorder and migraine: comorbidity, mechanisms, and clinical implications

A growing body of literature suggests that comorbid anxiety disorders are more common and more prognostically relevant among migraine sufferers than comorbid depression. Panic disorder (PD) appears to be more strongly associated with migraine than most other anxiety disorders. PD and migraine are both chronic diseases with episodic manifestations, involving significant functional impairment and shared symptoms during attacks, interictal anxiety concerning future attacks, and an absence of identifiable secondary pathology. A meta-analysis of high-quality epidemiologic study data from 1990 to 2012 indicates that the odds of PD are 3.76 times greater among individuals with migraine than those without. This association remains significant even after controlling for demographic variables and comorbid depression. Other less-rigorous community and clinical studies confirm these findings. The highest rates of PD are found among migraine with aura patients and those presenting to specialty clinics. Presence of PD is associated with greater negative impact of migraine, including more frequent attacks, increased disability, and risk for chronification and medication overuse. The mechanisms underlying this common comorbidity are poorly understood, but both pathophysiological (eg, serotonergic dysfunction, hormonal influences, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) and psychological (eg, interoceptive conditioning, fear of pain, anxiety sensitivity, avoidance behavior) factors are implicated. Means of assessing comorbid PD among treatment-seeking migraineurs are reviewed, including verbal screening for core PD symptoms, ruling out medical conditions with panic-like features, and administering validated self-report measures. Finally, evidence-based strategies for both pharmacologic and behavioral management are outlined. The first-line migraine prophylactics are not indicated for PD, and the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors used to treat PD are not efficacious for migraine; thus, separate agents are often required to address each condition. Core components of behavioral treatments for PD are reviewed, and their integration into clinical headache practice is discussed.

Management of psychotropic medication side effects in children and adolescents

This article is a review of several of the most concerning side effects of psychotropic medications in children and adolescents. An emphasis is placed on review of the prevalence, presentation, monitoring, and evidence-based management of these side effects.