1
|
Gamar Elanbya MO, Ramadan AM. Fluoride levels in Almadinah Almunawwarah bottled water. J Taibah Univ Med Sci 2023; 18:1500-1506. [PMID: 38162876 PMCID: PMC10757310 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtumed.2023.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives This research aimed to determine the fluoride levels in commercially available bottled waters and assess the accuracy of the fluoride levels labels on the bottles. Methods We obtained the labels from 28 water bottles from markets in Almadinah Almunawwarah. Water samples were diluted with an equal volume of total ionic strength adjustment buffer at the General Administration for Water Services. The electrode potential of each sample was then directly compared to standard fluoride solutions. For each sample, two readings were taken, and the average was recorded. Fluoride-ion levels were determined using a fluoride-ion-selective electrode and a digital readout ion meter. Results On average, the mean fluoride levels in the labelled bottles were 0.94 ± 0.14 PPM. The level of the actual fluoride content was 1.13 ± 0.31 PPM. Inconsistencies between the brand labels and true levels of fluoride were detected. Only one brand of bottled water was comparable in terms of the fluoride levels on the labels and the analysed fluoride levels. Only 85.71% of the brands tested had fluoride levels within the permissible fluoride range (0.6-1.5 PPM), 10.71% had fluoride levels above the permissible fluoride range, and 3.57% had fluoride levels below the permissible fluoride range. Conclusions In the KSA, most brands of bottled waters had fluoride levels above the ideal levels that are vital to the prevention of dental caries. There were differences in the fluoride levels recorded on the labels and the true levels determined in the laboratory. Fluoride levels must be accurately reported if we are to achieve necessary aesthetic and cosmetic benefits. Bottled water must meet critical quality standards to avoid the negative consequences of higher fluoride levels. Dentists and parents should be aware of this discrepancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- May O. Gamar Elanbya
- Department of Preventive Dental Sciences, Taibah University, Almadinah Almunawwarah, KSA
| | - AbdelRahman M. Ramadan
- Programme Director of Periodontology for Saudi Commission for Health Specialist at Ibn Sina National College for Medical Sciences, Jeddah, KSA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bradley PM, Romanok KM, Smalling KL, Focazio MJ, Evans N, Fitzpatrick SC, Givens CE, Gordon SE, Gray JL, Green EM, Griffin DW, Hladik ML, Kanagy LK, Lisle JT, Loftin KA, Blaine McCleskey R, Medlock-Kakaley EK, Navas-Acien A, Roth DA, South P, Weis CP. Bottled water contaminant exposures and potential human effects. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 171:107701. [PMID: 36542998 PMCID: PMC10123854 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bottled water (BW) consumption in the United States and globally has increased amidst heightened concern about environmental contaminant exposures and health risks in drinking water supplies, despite a paucity of directly comparable, environmentally-relevant contaminant exposure data for BW. This study provides insight into exposures and cumulative risks to human health from inorganic/organic/microbial contaminants in BW. METHODS BW from 30 total domestic US (23) and imported (7) sources, including purified tapwater (7) and spring water (23), were analyzed for 3 field parameters, 53 inorganics, 465 organics, 14 microbial metrics, and in vitro estrogen receptor (ER) bioactivity. Health-benchmark-weighted cumulative hazard indices and ratios of organic-contaminant in vitro exposure-activity cutoffs were assessed for detected regulated and unregulated inorganic and organic contaminants. RESULTS 48 inorganics and 45 organics were detected in sampled BW. No enforceable chemical quality standards were exceeded, but several inorganic and organic contaminants with maximum contaminant level goal(s) (MCLG) of zero (no known safe level of exposure to vulnerable sub-populations) were detected. Among these, arsenic, lead, and uranium were detected in 67 %, 17 %, and 57 % of BW, respectively, almost exclusively in spring-sourced samples not treated by advanced filtration. Organic MCLG exceedances included frequent detections of disinfection byproducts (DBP) in tapwater-sourced BW and sporadic detections of DBP and volatile organic chemicals in BW sourced from tapwater and springs. Precautionary health-based screening levels were exceeded frequently and attributed primarily to DBP in tapwater-sourced BW and co-occurring inorganic and organic contaminants in spring-sourced BW. CONCLUSION The results indicate that simultaneous exposures to multiple drinking-water contaminants of potential human-health concern are common in BW. Improved understandings of human exposures based on more environmentally realistic and directly comparable point-of-use exposure characterizations, like this BW study, are essential to public health because drinking water is a biological necessity and, consequently, a high-vulnerability vector for human contaminant exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Nicola Evans
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Emily M Green
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - John T Lisle
- U.S. Geological Survey, Saint Petersburg, Florida, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Paul South
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Christopher P Weis
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences/NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in bottled water: a case study of Iran. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:48955-48966. [PMID: 33928508 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14027-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Bottled water use has become widespread in recent years. Many Iranian cities are located in regions with a hot and semi-hot climate, and the quality of drinking water is low in most of these areas. Nitrate and fluoride are chemical constituents of drinking water with significant health concerns since they can be harmful in concentrations higher than drinking water standards. This study aims to determine nitrate and fluoride concentrations in different bottled water brands in the study region; evaluate the non-carcinogenic health risks posed by nitrate and fluoride exposure via the ingestion of bottled water; and compare the measured nitrate and fluoride concentrations with the amounts reported on the bottle labels. Twenty bottled water brands were sampled, and their nitrate and fluoride amounts were determined using the spectrophotometry method. The results revealed that 100% of nitrate and 70% of fluoride in samples had concentrations greater than the levels reported on bottle labels. Minimum, maximum, and mean concentrations for nitrate were, respectively, 1.1, 28, and 8.37 mg/L, and for fluoride were 0.014, 2.36, and 0.63 mg/L. The hazard quotient (HQ) values due to nitrate intake were > 1 in 10% of the samples (n = 2) for both infants and children, indicating potential adverse non-carcinogenic health effects upon consumption. For fluoride intake, the potential adverse health effects (HQ > 1) for infants, children, teenagers, and adults were respectively high in 30, 20, 10, and 10% of the samples. For nitrate, the 95th centile for infants was 1.547, and for fluoride, it was 2.62, 2.19, 1.15, and 1 for infants, children, teenagers, and adults, respectively.
Collapse
|
4
|
Almulla HI, King NM, Alnsour HM, Sajnani AK. Fluoride Content of Bottled Drinking Waters in Qatar. Biol Trace Elem Res 2016; 174:471-476. [PMID: 27116953 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-016-0718-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Fluoridation of drinking water has been recognized as one of the most effective ways of achieving community-wide exposure to the caries prevention effects of fluoride (F). A vast majority of people in Qatar use bottled water for drinking. Use of bottled water without knowing the F level may expose children to dental caries risk if the F level is lower than optimal or to dental fluorosis if the F level is too high. The aim of this study was to determine the F concentration of bottled water available in Qatar. A total of 32 brands of bottled water were evaluated. The F concentrations displayed on the labels were recorded. The F ion-selective electrode method was used to measure the F concentration in water samples, and three measurements were taken for every sample to ensure reproducibility. The p value was set at 0.05. The F concentration ranged from 0.06 to 3.0 ppm with a mean value of 0.8 ppm (±0.88). The F levels were provided by the manufacturers on the labels of 60 % of the samples, but this was significantly lower than the measured F levels (p < 0.0001). Moreover, bottled water that was produced in Saudi Arabia had significantly higher levels of F when compared to those produced in other countries (p < 0.05). There was a wide variation in the F levels in the different brands of bottled water. Furthermore, there was a significant disparity between the F levels which were measured and those that were provided on the labels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nigel M King
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | | | - Anand K Sajnani
- KIMS Qatar Medical Centre, Abdulrahman Bin Jassim Al Thani Street, P.O. Box. 82125, Wakra, Qatar.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ramesh M, Narasimhan M, Krishnan R, Chalakkal P, Aruna RM, Kuruvilah S. The prevalence of dental fluorosis and its associated factors in Salem district. Contemp Clin Dent 2016; 7:203-8. [PMID: 27307668 PMCID: PMC4906864 DOI: 10.4103/0976-237x.183061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Context: There are various regions in India that have high levels of fluoride in drinking water sources. Many people residing in such places suffer from dental fluorosis (DF). Aims: To evaluate the prevalence of DF in children residing in Salem and also to find any correlation between DF and other related factors. Materials and Methods: One school from each block of Salem (total 21 blocks) was selected for the study. A single examiner had evaluated untreated caries, lesions, and DF (for permanent anterior teeth and molars) using the Dean's fluorosis index, in all children. Water fluoride level determination at each school was done using the Tamil Nadu Water Fluoridation and Drainage Board field kit. Other factors that may have contributed to DF were assessed using a questionnaire, which was provided to each student. The data obtained were statistically analyzed using the SPSS software version 11.5. Statistical Analysis: Chi-square test was used for statistical analysis. Results: DF was present in 56.9% of the children examined. It was mostly seen in 9 years old (72%) and male (59%) children. A positive correlation was found between the occurrence of DF and the duration of residence in a place with high water fluoride content, consumption of borewell water (64%), the parts per million of fluoride in drinking water, consumption of black tea (59%). However, no correlation was found between DF, dental caries, consumption of milk, or consumption of foods cooked in aluminum vessels. Conclusion: There was a correlation between DF and factors such as male gender, bore well water consumption, black tea consumption and the duration of residence in a place with high water fluoride content.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maya Ramesh
- Department of Oral Pathology, Vinayaka Mission's Sankarachariyar Dental College, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Malathi Narasimhan
- Department of Oral Pathology, Sri Ramachandra Dental College and Hospital, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ramesh Krishnan
- Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, Vinayaka Mission's Sankarachariyar Dental College, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Paul Chalakkal
- Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, Goa Dental College and Hospital, Bambolim, Goa, India
| | - Rita Mary Aruna
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Penang International Dental College, VMU, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sarah Kuruvilah
- Department of Pathology, Madras Medical Mission, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Maraver F, Vitoria I, Almerich-Silla JM, Armijo F. [Fluoride content of bottled natural mineral waters in Spain and prevention of dental caries]. Aten Primaria 2015; 47:15-24. [PMID: 24958628 PMCID: PMC6985650 DOI: 10.1016/j.aprim.2014.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM The aim of the study was to determine the concentration of fluoride in natural mineral waters marketed in Spain in order to prevent tooth decay without the risk of causing dental fluorosis DESIGN Descriptive and cross-sectional study during 2012. LOCATION Natural mineral waters marketed in Spain. PARTICIPANTS Three bottles with different bottling dates of 109 natural mineral waters (97 Spanish and 12 imported brands). MAIN MEASURES Determination of fluoride by ion chromatography RESULTS Median fluoride concentrations of the natural mineral waters bottled in Spain was 0.22 (range 0.00-4.16; interquartile range:0.37). Most samples (61 brands, 62%) contained less than 0.3mg/L. There are 19 Spanish brands with more than 0.6 mg/L. The median level in imported brands was 0.35 (range 0.10-1.21; interquartile range: 0.23). Only 28 of the 109 brands examined (25.6%) specified the fluoride content on the label. Good correlation was observed between the concentrations indicated and those determined. CONCLUSIONS Fluoride concentrations in natural mineral waters showed high variation. Given the growing consumption of natural mineral waters in Spain, this type of information is important to make proper use of fluoride in the primary prevention of dental caries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Maraver
- Escuela Profesional de Hidrología Médica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, España
| | - Isidro Vitoria
- Unidad de Nutrición y Metabolopatías, Hospital La Fe, Valencia, España.
| | | | - Francisco Armijo
- Escuela Profesional de Hidrología Médica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, España
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Cochrane NJ, Hopcraft MS, Tong AC, Thean HL, Thum YS, Tong DE, Wen J, Zhao SC, Stanton DP, Yuan Y, Shen P, Reynolds EC. Fluoride content of tank water in Australia. Aust Dent J 2014; 59:180-6. [PMID: 24861392 DOI: 10.1111/adj.12163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aims of this study were to: (1) analyse the fluoride content of tank water; (2) determine whether the method of water collection or storage influenced fluoride content; and (3) survey participant attitudes towards water fluoridation. METHODS Plastic tubes and a questionnaire were distributed through dentists to households with water tanks in Victoria. A midstream tank water sample was collected and fluoride analysed in triplicate using ion chromatography RESULTS All samples (n = 123) contained negligible amounts of fluoride, with a mean fluoride concentration of <0.01 ppm (range: <0.01-0.18 ppm). No statistically significant association was found between fluoride content and variables investigated such as tank material, tank age, roof material and gutter material. Most people did not know whether their tank water contained fluoride and 40.8% preferred to have access to fluoridated water. The majority thought fluoride was safe and more than half of the respondents supported fluoridation. Fluoride content of tank water was well below the optimal levels for caries prevention. CONCLUSIONS People who rely solely on tank water for drinking may require additional exposure to fluoride for optimal caries prevention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N J Cochrane
- Oral Health CRC, Melbourne Dental School, Bio21 Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Khater AE, Al-Jaloud A, El-Taher A. Quality Level of Bottled Drinking Water Consumed in Saudi Arabia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.3923/jest.2014.90.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
9
|
Pontigo-Loyola AP, Medina-Solís CE, Lara-Carrillo E, Patiño-Marín N, Escoffié-Ramirez M, Mendoza-Rodríguez M, De La Rosa-Santillana R, Maupomé G. Impact of socio-demographic, socioeconomic, and water variables on dental fluorosis in adolescents growing up during the implementation of a fluoridated domestic salt program. Odontology 2012; 102:105-15. [PMID: 23224521 DOI: 10.1007/s10266-012-0094-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to determine the impact of socio-demographic, socioeconomic, and other risk indicators on dental fluorosis (DF) among Mexican adolescents. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 1,538 adolescents 12 and 15 years of age in semi-rural communities located at high altitude (>2,000 m) and with high concentration of fluoride in water (1.38-3.07 ppm) in Hidalgo, Mexico. DF was determined by means of Dean's Index and all teeth were examined. Remaining variables were collected using a questionnaire. The adjusted final model was performed using ordered logistic regression. After adjusting for sex, the variables associated with DF were (p < 0.05): being 12 years old (OR = 1.10) versus 15 years old; having lived the first 6 years of life in El Llano (3.07 F ppm) (OR = 3.19) or San Marcos (1.38 F ppm) (OR = 1.63) versus Tula (1.42 F ppm); having public (OR = 1.35) or private health insurance (OR = 1.36) versus those without insurance; belonging to the lower quartiles of socioeconomic position (SEP) [1st quartile (OR = 2.48), 2nd quartile (OR = 1.81), 3rd quartile (OR = 1.49)] versus the highest quartile; having drunk tap water (OR = 1.83) or from a well or spring (OR = 2.30) versus those who drank water purchased in large containers or bottles. Demographic and socioeconomic variables were associated with DF. While better SEP appeared to play an important role in DF, a pattern of water intake associated with water purchased in large containers or bottles (which have different connotations to the use of bottled water in industrialized Western countries) did reduce DF risk in these high fluoride content, high altitude communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- América P Pontigo-Loyola
- Área Académica de Odontología del Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|