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Differential Gene Expression in Articular Cartilage and Subchondral Bone of Neonatal and Adult Horses. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10100745. [PMID: 31557843 PMCID: PMC6826356 DOI: 10.3390/genes10100745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletogenesis is complex and incompletely understood. Derangement of this process likely underlies developmental skeletal pathologies. Examination of tissue-specific gene expression may help elucidate novel skeletal developmental pathways that could contribute to disease risk. Our aim was to identify and functionally annotate differentially expressed genes in equine neonatal and adult articular cartilage (AC) and subchondral bone (SCB). RNA was sequenced from healthy AC and SCB from the fetlock, hock, and stifle joints of 6 foals (≤4 weeks of age) and six adults (8–12 years of age). There was distinct clustering by age and tissue type. After differential expression analysis, functional annotation and pathway analysis were performed using PANTHER and Reactome. Approximately 1115 and 3574 genes were differentially expressed between age groups in AC and SCB, respectively, falling within dozens of overrepresented gene ontology terms and enriched pathways reflecting a state of growth, high metabolic activity, and tissue turnover in the foals. Enriched pathways were dominated by those related to extracellular matrix organization and turnover, and cell cycle and signal transduction. Additionally, we identified enriched pathways related to neural development and neurotransmission in AC and innate immunity in SCB. These represent novel potential mechanisms for disease that can be explored in future work.
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Mirams M, Ayodele BA, Tatarczuch L, Henson FM, Pagel CN, Mackie EJ. Identification of novel osteochondrosis--Associated genes. J Orthop Res 2016; 34:404-11. [PMID: 26296056 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
During the early stages of articular osteochondrosis, cartilage is retained in subchondral bone, but the pathophysiology of this condition of growing humans and domestic animals is poorly understood. A subtractive hybridization study was undertaken to compare gene expression between the cartilage of early experimentally induced equine osteochondrosis lesions and control cartilage. Of the many putative differentially expressed genes identified, eight were confirmed by quantitative PCR analysis as differentially expressed, in addition to those already known to be associated with early lesions. Genes encoding vacuolar H(+)-ATPase V0 subunit d2 (ATP6V0D2), cathepsin K, integrin-binding sialoprotein, integrin αV, low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4, lumican, osteopontin, and thymosin β4 (TMSB4) were expressed at higher levels in lesions than in control cartilage. These genes included 34 genes not previously identified in cartilage. Some genes identified as associated with early lesions are known chondrocyte hypertrophy-associated genes, and in transmission electron microscopy studies normal hypertrophic chondrocytes were observed in lesions. Differential expression of ATP6V0D2 and TMSB4 in the cartilage of early naturally occurring osteochondrosis lesions was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. These results identify novel osteochondrosis-associated genes and provide evidence that articular osteochondrosis does not necessarily result from failure of chondrocytes to undergo hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Mirams
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Babatunde A Ayodele
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Liliana Tatarczuch
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Frances M Henson
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Charles N Pagel
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Eleanor J Mackie
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Prevalence and characteristics of osteochondrosis in 309 Spanish Purebred horses. Vet J 2016; 207:112-117. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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van Weeren PR, Denoix JM. The Normandy field study on juvenile osteochondral conditions: Conclusions regarding the influence of genetics, environmental conditions and management, and the effect on performance. Vet J 2013; 197:90-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.03.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Patil AS, Sable RB, Kothari RM. An update on transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β): sources, types, functions and clinical applicability for cartilage/bone healing. J Cell Physiol 2011; 226:3094-103. [PMID: 21344394 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) has been reviewed for its sources, types of isoforms, biochemical effects on cartilage formation/repair, and its possible clinical applications. Purification of three isoforms (TGF-β-1, β-2 and β-3) and their biochemical characterization revealed mainly their homo-dimer nature, with heterodimers in traces, each monomer comprised of 112 amino acids and MW. of 12 500 Da. While histo-chemical staining by a variety of dyes has revealed precise localization of TGF-β in tissues, immune-blot technique has thrown light on their expression as a function of age (neonatal vs. adult), as also on its quantum in an active and latent state. X-ray crystallographic studies and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis have unraveled mysteries of their three-dimensional structures, essential for understanding their functions. Their similarities have led to interchangeability in assays, while differences have led to their specialized clinical applicability. For this purpose, their latent (inactive) form is changed to an active form through enzymatic processes of phosphorylation/glycosylation/transamination/proteolytic degradation. Their functions encompass differentiation and de-differentiation of chondrocytes, synthesis of collagen and proteoglycans (PGs) and thereby maintain homeostasis of cartilage in several degenerative diseases and repair through cell cycle signaling and physiological control. While several factors affecting their performance are already identified, their interplay and chronology of sequences of functions is yet to be understood. For its success in clinical applications, challenges in judicious dealing with the factors and their interplay need to be understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Patil
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Bharati Vidyapeeth Dental College and Hospital, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
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de Grauw JC, Donabédian M, van de Lest CHA, Perona G, Robert C, Lepage O, Martin-Rosset W, van Weeren PR. Assessment of synovial fluid biomarkers in healthy foals and in foals with tarsocrural osteochondrosis. Vet J 2011; 190:390-5. [PMID: 21216637 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Revised: 11/26/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Although alterations in biomarkers of cartilage turnover in synovial fluid (SF) have been demonstrated in horses with osteochondrosis (OC), there have been few investigations of such alterations in animals <1 year old. In this study tarsocrural SF samples from foals aged 18, 22 and 52 weeks of age were assessed for: (1) 'turnover' biomarkers of type II collagen (CPII and C2C) and proteoglycan (CS846 and glycosaminoglycans [GAG]); (2) matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity; (3) insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1; (4) transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1; (5) prostaglandin (PG) E(2); and (6) leukotriene B(4). Using a linear mixed model, the concentration of biomarkers was compared between animals that developed or did not develop radiographic evidence of OC at 24 or 48 weeks of age. The CPII:C2C ratio tended to be higher in OC-affected joints compared to controls at all ages, and this difference was statistically significant at 22 weeks of age. The concentrations of CS846 and IGF-1, and the CS846:GAG ratio were reduced in OC-affected joints relative to controls at 18 weeks of age only. At 52 weeks of age, the PGE(2) concentration was lower in joints with OC. Overall, there appears to be a consistent anabolic shift in type II collagen turnover in juvenile joints affected by OC. Aberrant proteoglycan turnover is not a hallmark of the late repair of this lesion but reduced concentrations of IGF-1 in SF may be associated with early-stage lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C de Grauw
- Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 114, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Lecocq M, Girard CA, Fogarty U, Beauchamp G, Richard H, Laverty S. Cartilage matrix changes in the developing epiphysis: early events on the pathway to equine osteochondrosis? Equine Vet J 2008; 40:442-54. [PMID: 18487100 DOI: 10.2746/042516408x297453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY The earliest osteochondrosis (OC) microscopic lesion reported in the literature was present in the femorotibial joint of a 2-day-old foal suggesting that OC lesions and factors initiating them may arise prior to birth. OBJECTIVE To examine the developing equine epiphysis to detect histological changes that could be precursors to OC lesions. METHODS Osteochondral samples from 21 equine fetuses and 13 foals were harvested from selected sites in the scapulohumeral, humeroradial, metacarpophalangeal, femoropatellar, femorotibial, tarsocrural and metatarsophalangeal joints. Sections were stained with safranin O and picrosiruis red to assess cartilage changes and structural arrangement of the collagen matrix. RESULTS Extracellular matrix changes observed included perivascular areas of paleness of the proteoglycan matrix associated with hypocellularity and, sometimes, necrotic chondrocytes. These changes were most abundant in the youngest fetuses and in the femoropatellar/femorotibial (FP/FT) joints. Indentations of the ossification front were also observed in most specimens, but, most frequently, in scapulohumeral and FP/FT joints. A cartilage canal was almost always present in these indentations. The vascular density of the cartilage was higher in the youngest fetuses. In these fetuses, the most vascularised joints were the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints but their cartilage canals regressed quickly. After birth, the most vascularised cartilage was present in the FP/FT joint. Articular cartilage differentiated into 4 zones early in fetal life and the epiphyseal cartilage also had a distinct zonal cartilage structure. A striking difference was observed in the collagen structure at the junction of the proliferative and hypertrophic zones where OCD lesions occur. CONCLUSION Matrix and ossification front changes were frequently observed and significantly associated with cartilage canals suggesting that they may be physiological changes associated with matrix remodelling and development. The collagen structure was variable through the growing epiphysis and a differential in biomechanical properties at focal sites may predispose them to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lecocq
- Département de sciences cliniques, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Grimaud E, Heymann D, Rédini F. Recent advances in TGF-beta effects on chondrocyte metabolism. Potential therapeutic roles of TGF-beta in cartilage disorders. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2002; 13:241-57. [PMID: 12486877 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6101(02)00004-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Novel approaches to treat osteoarthritis are required and progress in understanding the biology of cartilage disorders has led to the use of genes whose products stimulate cartilage repair or inhibit breakdown of the cartilaginous matrix. Among them, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) plays a significant role in promoting chondrocyte anabolism in vitro (enhancing matrix production, cell proliferation, osteochondrogenic differentiation) and in vivo (short-term intra-articular injections lead to increased bone formation and subsequent cartilage formation, beneficial effects on osteochondrogenesis). In vivo induction of the expression of TGF-beta and the use of gene transfer may provide a new approach for treatment of osteoarthritic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Grimaud
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Résorption Osseuse EE 99-01, Faculté de Médecine, University of Nantes, 1 rue Gaston Veil, 44035 Nantes, France
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Semevolos SA, Nixon AJ, Brower-Toland BD. Changes in molecular expression of aggrecan and collagen types I, II, and X, insulin-like growth factor-I, and transforming growth factor-beta1 in articular cartilage obtained from horses with naturally acquired osteochondrosis. Am J Vet Res 2001; 62:1088-94. [PMID: 11453485 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine molecular changes in the expression of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) in horses with osteochondrosis, and to characterize expression of matrix aggrecan and collagen types I, II, and X in articular cartilage of affected joints. SAMPLE POPULATION Articular cartilage from affected stifle or shoulder joints of 11 horses with naturally acquired osteochondrosis and corresponding joints of 11 clinically normal horses. PROCEDURE Harvested specimens were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen, and total RNA was isolated. Specimens were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for histologic examinations. Expression of matrix molecules was assessed by analysis of northern blots and in situ hybridization, using equine-specific cDNA probes and riboprobes, respectively. Expression of IGF-I and TGF-beta1 was assessed by use of noncompetitive quantitative polymerase chain reaction, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS Cartilage obtained from osteochondrosis lesions had significantly greater expression of IGF-I, compared with normal cartilage. Expression of TGF-beta1 and collagen type I were higher, but not significantly so, in affected tissues. Expression of aggrecan or collagen types II and X did not differ between affected and clinically normal cartilage. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Increased expression of growth factors and collagen type I was found in cartilage from osteochondrosis lesions. However, this probably reflects a healing response to injured tissue rather than a primary alteration. Therefore, methods aimed at altering concentrations of growth factors in cartilage of growing horses would be unlikely to alter the incidence or progress of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Semevolos
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Laverty S, Ionescu M, Marcoux M, Bouré L, Doizé B, Poole AR. Alterations in cartilage type-II procollagen and aggrecan contents in synovial fluid in equine osteochondrosis. J Orthop Res 2000; 18:399-405. [PMID: 10937626 DOI: 10.1002/jor.1100180311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The etiology and pathophysiology of osteochondrosis remain poorly understood because it is difficult to obtain material from lesions in the early stage of this disease and because there is no satisfactory experimental animal model. We wished to determine whether there are changes in articular cartilage turnover in equine osteochondrosis, which closely resembles the human disease, by assaying cartilage matrix molecules in synovial fluids. We used immunoassays that measure a keratan sulfate epitope and the epitope 846 on the cartilage proteoglycan aggrecan and the C-propeptide of cartilage type-II procollagen, which is released following the synthesis of this molecule, to analyse synovial fluids from equine tarsocrural joints with and without osteochondrosis. In young horses with osteochondrosis, there was a significant increase of C-propeptide of type-II procollagen accompanied by a decrease in the 846 and keratan sulfate epitopes. The results identify differential alterations in aggrecan and type-II collagen turnover in the cartilage matrix in young animals with osteochondrosis that may contribute to the pathological degeneration of articular cartilage in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Laverty
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montreal, St. Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada.
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Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Conclusions regarding the influence of exercise on the development of the equine musculoskeletal system with special reference to osteochondrosis. Equine Vet J 1999:112-9. [PMID: 10999670 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05323.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper summarises and interrelates the findings of a large-scale multidisciplinary investigation to assess the influence of exercise on the development of the equine musculoskeletal system in general and of osteochondrosis in particular, up to age 5 months. Forty-three foals, genetically predisposed to develop OC, were divided into 3 exercise groups: box-rest, box-rest with training and free pasture exercise. At 5 months, all foals were weaned and 8 foals per group were subjected to euthanasia for postmortem examination. The remaining 19 foals were placed together and subjected to euthanasia at age 11 months. Foals were clinically and radiographically monitored during life, muscle and tendon biopsies were taken and gait analysed kinematically. After euthanasia, all major musculoskeletal tissue components (bone, articular cartilage, tendon and muscle) were analysed extensively using a wide variety of techniques. Radiographic monitoring of the stifle and hock joints and postmortem analysis of all diarthrodial joints led to the conclusion that osteochondrosis is a dynamic and very common process in which lesions cannot only develop, but may regress spontaneously during the 'windows of susceptibility' of the various joints, making the clinically diagnosed forms of osteochondrosis into the tip of an iceberg. Closure of the 'window of susceptibility' may be determined by the metabolic status of the chondrocyte which was shown to be inferior in older lesions. Exercise had no influence on the number of lesions, but was related to the distribution of lesions within the joint. There was some evidence that growth rate may be one of the most important intrinsic factors that determine the occurrence of OC. Lack of exercise (box-rest) generally delayed the development of the tissues that make up the equine musculoskeletal system. This was evident in bone mineral density (BMD) at various sites, chemical composition of tendon and of articular cartilage, and in the development of gait. In most cases, this delay was compensated for when box confinement was lifted after 5 months. However, there were indications that this was not true for some collagen characteristics of articular cartilage where the withholding of exercise at early age may therefore have a lifelong effect. The training protocol used (rather high-intensity exercise superimposed on a basic box-rest regimen) appeared to have long lasting negative effects, affecting chondrocyte viability long after the training protocol had ended. A same tendency was seen in bone (decrease in BMD) and tendons (decreases in proteoglycan and hyaluronic acid content). It is concluded that, during the first months postpartum, the equine musculoskeletal system passes through a very dynamic period of growth-related development and intense alteration. In this period, the system is vulnerable to adverse influences that may result in developmental orthopaedic disease. However, regenerative capacity is still high, also in those tissues that are notorious for their lack of repair capacity in the mature individual, such as articular cartilage and tendon. Exercise seems to be an important factor in the determination of the final make-up (and hence biomechanical strength) of these tissues and, therefore, is a potentially powerful tool for the enhancement of injury resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Barneveld
- Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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Jeffcott LB, Henson FM. Studies on growth cartilage in the horse and their application to aetiopathogenesis of dyschondroplasia (osteochondrosis). Vet J 1998; 156:177-92. [PMID: 9883086 DOI: 10.1016/s1090-0233(98)80121-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The importance of osteochondrosis (dyschondroplasia) to the horse industry has been well documented since it was first recorded 50 years ago. The condition is known to be multifactorial in origin, arising from focal failure of endochondral ossification at predilection sites in articular/epiphyseal growth cartilage, but specific information on its aetiopathogenesis is sparse. This paper reviews the current knowledge of growth cartilage metabolism and the process of normal endochondral ossification in the horse. It highlights the localization of various protein products of chondrocytes and the differences in the zones of articular cartilage. In the early focal lesions (referred to as dyschondroplasia) there are alterations in the chondrocytes, extracellular matrix and some of the local protein products. The most obvious feature is an alteration in matrix metabolism which may be responsible for triggering a range of other factors leading to the development of a retained core of cartilage and a primary lesion of dyschondroplasia. Based on available evidence, a preliminary hypothesis for pathogenesis is presented. This suggests that there are a number of factors capable of initiating the condition. One of these involves high circulating insulin levels from high energy feeding which may affect chondrocyte maturation leading to altered matrix metabolism and faulty mineralization resulting in the formation of cartilage cores which characterize the condition. Further research to test this hypothesis is needed before there can be a rational basis for prophylaxis.
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