The effect of particle size and concentration on the adhesive characteristics of a model drug-carrier interactive system

Mixing energy as an adjustment tool for aerodynamic behaviour of an inhaled product: In-vitro and in-vivo effects

This paper describes the development of a fixed dose dry powder combination of indacaterol maleate (Inda) and glycopyrronium bromide (Glyco) in Easyhaler® inhaler for a comparative pharmacokinetic (PK) study, as well as the outcome of such a study. The development aim was to produce formulations with three different in vitro dispersibility profiles for both Inda and Glyco. This so-called 'rake' approach allows for quantitation of the candidate formulations relative to the reference product Ultibro® Breezhaler® in terms of the key PK parameters. Three formulations (A, B and C) were produced based on the mixing energy concept. For both APIs, formulation A (lowest mixing energy) displayed the highest fine particle fractions and formulation C (highest mixing energy) the lowest. GMP manufacturing confirmed the performance of the three formulations. The candidate formulations were tested against the reference product in a single dose PK study in healthy volunteers. Clear differences in Inda plasma concentration profiles were observed between the treatments when administered concomitantly with charcoal, with Easyhaler A showing the highest Cmax value and Easyhaler C the lowest. Easyhaler B was bioequivalent to Ultibro Breezhaler with regard to the primary PK parameters of Inda, Cmax and AUC72h. For Glyco, Easyhaler formulations A, B and C provided lower peak concentrations than Ultibro Breezhaler. For AUC72h of Glyco, Easyhaler B was bioequivalent to the reference product. Additional measures for adjustment of formulation performance can be foreseen, whose effects can be predicted based on mixing energy theory.

On the effects of blending, physicochemical properties, and their interactions on the performance of carrier-based dry powders for inhalation - A review

Blending drug and carrier powders to produce homogeneous drug-carrier adhesive mixtures is a key step in the production of dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulations. Although the blending conditions can result in different conclusions or probably change the outcome of a study entirely if being selected differently, there is a scarcity of data on the influence of blending processes on the physicochemical properties of bulk powder formulations and the follow-on effects on DPI performance. This paper provides an overview of the interactions between variables related to blending conditions (e.g. blending equipment, time, speed and sequence as well as environmental humidity) and powder physicochemical properties (e.g. size distribution, shape distribution, density, anomeric composition, electrostatic charge, surface, and bulk properties), and their effects on the performance of adhesive mixtures for inhalation in terms of drug content homogeneity, drug-carrier adhesion, and drug aerosolisation behaviour. The relevance of carrier payload, batch size and segregation was also discussed. Challenges and future directions were identified. This review therefore contributes towards a better understanding of the blending process, powder physicochemical properties, and their interlinked effects on the fundamental understanding of adhesive mixtures for inhalation. The knowledge gained is essential to ensure optimum blending and thereby controlled functionality of DPIs.

Drug content effects on the dispersion performance of adhesive mixtures for inhalation

The drug content in adhesive mixtures for inhalation is known to influence their dispersion performance, but the direction and magnitude of this influence depends on other variables. In the past decades several mechanisms have been postulated to explain this finding and a number of possible interacting variables have been identified. Still, the role of drug content in the formulation of adhesive mixtures for inhalation, which includes its significance as an interacting variable to other parameters, is poorly understood. Therefore, the results from a series of drug detachment experiments are presented in which the effect of drug content and its dependence on flow rate, the mixing time and the type of drug is studied. Furthermore, it is investigated whether the effect depends on the range within which the drug content is changed. Quantitative and qualitative multiple order interactions are observed between these variables, which may be explained by a shifting balance between three different mechanisms. The results therefore demonstrate that accounting for (multiple order) interactions between variables has to be part of quality by design activities and the rational design of future experiments.

Preparation and characterization of highly porous direct compression carrier particles with improved drug loading during an interactive mixing process

The aim of this study was to prepare highly porous carrier particles by emulsion solvent evaporation and compare the loading capacity of these beads with two traditional carriers, sugar beads, and microcrystalline cellulose granules during an interactive mixing process. The porous carrier particles were prepared by an emulsion solvent evaporation process using cellulose propionate as a binder, anhydrous dibasic calcium phosphate, and ion exchange resins as a fillers, and polyethylene glycol as a pore inducer. Micronized furosemide or griseofulvin powder was mixed with the same volume of each carrier in an interactive mixing process. The tableting properties, drug loading per unit volume of carrier, content uniformity of the mixtures, and dissolution of the drugs from the mixtures were measured. The results showed that highly porous microcapsules with desirable hardness equivalent to that of sugar beads and MCC granules were successfully prepared. On average the loading capacity of the new carrier was 310% that of sugar beads and 320% that of MCC granules during an interactive mixing process with very good content uniformity. The tableting properties of the microcapsules were equivalent to that of microcrystalline cellulose granules, and the dissolution of the drugs from interactive mixtures prepared with the new carrier was equivalent to that of drug suspensions. This showed that the prepared microcapsule carrier could be used to improve the loading capacity during an interactive mixing and to prepare tablets by direct compression.

The effect of carrier surface treatment on drug particle detachment from crystalline carriers in adhesive mixtures for inhalation

In this study, the effect of lactose carrier surface treatment on drug particle detachment during inhalation has been investigated. Crystals of marketed brands of alpha lactose monohydrate brands normally exhibit a certain surface rugosity and contain natural fines and impurities on their surface, which influence the drug-to-carrier interaction in adhesive mixtures for inhalation. Submersion treatment may change these surface characteristics. Two different sieve fractions (63-90 and 250-355microm) were submerged in mixtures of ethanol and water (96 and 80% v/v, respectively). Microscopic observation and laser diffraction analysis revealed that neither the shape nor the size of the carrier particles was changed by the submersion treatment. However, the specific surface area and the amount of impurities appeared to decrease substantially after submersion, and the magnitude of the decrease was different for the different ethanol-water mixtures. The reduction in specific surface area was attributed particularly to the removal of the adhering lactose fines from the carrier surface. Mixtures with budesonide (in a wide range of carrier payloads) were prepared before and after treatment. Drug particle detachment from the various mixtures was studied with a sieve test and with a cascade impactor analysis at 30 and 60l/min. Two different types of inhalers were used, one generating lift- and drag-forces (ISF inhaler) and one generating inertial forces (test inhaler), respectively. The cascade impactor and sieve test experiments showed that an increase in carrier surface smoothness results in a reduced drug particle detachment during inhalation, which was independent of the type of inhaler used. This reduction could be attributed to the removal of the adhering lactose fines which may provide shelter for the drug particles from press-on forces during mixing.

A critical evaluation of the relevant parameters for drug redispersion from adhesive mixtures during inhalation

In this paper, the parameters that are relevant to the drug redispersion from adhesive mixtures during inhalation are discussed and evaluated. The results obtained with air classifier technology give strong evidence for a dominating influence of carrier surface properties on the fraction of drug detached during inhalation at a low carrier payload (< or =1%, w/w), versus a dominating effect of carrier bulk properties at higher payloads. Furthermore, the results indicate that there is a fundamental difference between so-called active carrier sites and large surface discontinuities. The difference refers to the saturation concentrations, the rates of saturation and their effects on drug detachment during inhalation. The degree of saturation of the active sites appears to be proportional with the square root of the carrier surface payload (after 10 min mixing time in a Turbula mixer at 90 rpm). The storage volume of the discontinuities seems largely independent of the carrier diameter for particles derived from the same batch of crystalline lactose. Saturation of these discontinuities is completed at a much lower carrier surface payload than saturation of the active sites. Relatively large discontinuities are beneficial to de-agglomeration principles that make use of inertial separation forces during inhalation, as they provide shelter from inertial and frictional press-on forces during mixing which increase the strength of the interparticulate bonds in the powder mixture. For de-agglomeration principles generating frictional, drag or lift forces, carrier surface depressions and projections are disadvantageous however, as they also provide shelter from these removal forces.

The Rate of Drug Particle Detachment from Carrier Crystals in an Air Classifier-Based Inhaler

PURPOSE

To investigate the rate with which drug particles are detached from carrier particles in adhesive mixtures when the action of the separation forces during inhalation is sustained by circulation of the powder dose in an air classifier.

METHODS

Residual drug on retained carrier particles from different adhesive mixture compositions has been analyzed after different circulation times in the classifier (0.5 to 6 s). For calculation of the detachment rate within the first 0.5 s of inhalation, the optical concentration of the aerosol from the classifier has been measured with laser diffraction technique.

RESULTS

Drug detachment from carrier crystals during inhalation increases not only with the flow rate but also with the time during which the action of the separation forces (at a constant flow rate) is sustained. The detachment rate at the same flow rate varies with the carrier size fraction and carrier payload and is clearly highest within the first 0.5 s of inhalation.

CONCLUSIONS

Drug detachment from carrier approaches first-order reaction within the first half-second of inhalation. But at longer circulation times in the classifier, the ratio of removal to adhesive forces decreases dramatically. To increase the detached fraction of drug during inhalation at a constant flow rate, a short residence time for the powder in the de-agglomerator between 0.5 and 2 s is desired.

The Mode of Drug Particle Detachment from Carrier Crystals in an Air Classifier-Based Inhaler

PURPOSE

To investigate the mode of drug particle detachment from carrier crystals in an air classifier as a function of the carrier size fraction, payload, and the circulation time in the classifier.

METHODS

Laser diffraction analysis of the aerosol cloud from the classifier has been performed at 10, 20, 30, and 60 l/min, using a special adapter, for different adhesive mixture compositions.

RESULTS

A significant part of the drug particles is detached from carrier crystals during inhalation as small agglomerates. Such agglomerates originate from the starting material or are newly formed on the carrier surface during mixing. The degree of agglomeration during mixing depends on the carrier size, payload, and surface rugosity. The size of the agglomerates that are formed during mixing, increases with the size of the carrier particles. Predominantly the largest drug particles and agglomerates are detached within the first 0.5 s of inhalation. After 0.5 s, smaller primary particles are dislodged.

CONCLUSIONS

A high ratio of removal forces to adhesive forces causes a high drug detachment rate from carrier crystals in a classifier within the first 0.5 s of inhalation. The high ratio can be explained by dislodgment of agglomerates and the largest primary particles in the early phases of inhalation. At higher flow rates, detached agglomerates may be further disintegrated into primary particles before they are discharged from the classifier. Agglomeration of drug particles on the carrier surface is the result of the same forces that are responsible for pressing these particles firmly to the carrier crystals during mixing.

Effect of a Change in Crystal Polymorph on the Degree of Adhesion Between Micronized Drug Particles and Large Homogenous Carrier Particles During an Interactive Mixing Process

This study reports the effect of a change in crystal form on the quality of interactive mixtures prepared with homogenous sugar beads and the three polymorphs of chloramphenicol palmitate (CAP). Six mixtures containing micronized CAP polymorph powder (0.5%) and sugar beads (99.5%) were mixed in a Turbula mixer at 27 rpm or 54 rpm for 2.5, 5, 10, or 20 min. Three of the six mixtures was screened to remove the unmixed drug powder. The content uniformity (CV %) of the three screened and three unscreened mixtures was determined by determining the variation in drug content of 10 randomly taken samples from each mixture. Comparison of the amount of drug screened and the content uniformity of the mixtures showed that at short mixing times and 27 rpm and longer mixing times of 10 and 20 min at 54 rpm, the three crystal forms formed interactive mixtures with statistically the same content uniformity. In contrast at 54 rpm and mixing for 5 min and shorter, form A formed less homogeneous interactive mixtures compared with forms B and C. Consistently at both mixing speeds a larger amount of form A, compared with forms B and C, was screened from the mixtures. The results showed that the affinity between forms B and C and the carrier sugar beads is higher than that between form A and the sugar beads. Therefore, changing the crystal form of a drug influences the affinity between the drug and a carrier when preparing interactive mixtures.

The effect of carrier surface and bulk properties on drug particle detachment from crystalline lactose carrier particles during inhalation, as function of carrier payload and mixing time

The effect of carrier payload and mixing time on the redispersion of drug particles from adhesive mixtures during inhalation for two different drugs (budesonide and disodium cromoglycate) has been investigated. A special test inhaler which retains carrier crystals during inhalation was used at 30 and 60 l/min. The special inhaler enabled the analysis of residual drug on the carrier yielding so called carrier residue (CR) values. Mixtures with carrier size fractions of 32-45; 150-200 and 250-355 microm, derived from marketed lactose brands, with increasing carrier payload (0.4-6.0% w/w of drug) were prepared. It was found that with increasing carrier payload, the CR increases for the coarse carrier fraction, decreases for the fine fraction and remains roughly constant for the intermediate fraction at 30 l/min. At 60 l/min, the CR decreased for all carrier fractions with increasing payload. The effect of powder bulk properties on the adhesive forces between drug and carrier (during mixing) as well as changes in the balance between adhesion and separation forces (during inhalation) explain the results found. An improved understanding of the different effects is obtained through the recently introduced force distribution concept. The ratio of (mean) separation force to (mean) adhesion force increases with the flow rate. The adhesive forces (during mixing) increase with increasing carrier diameter (higher press-on and kneading forces) and longer mixing time.

Solid state 'adsorption' of fine antibiotic powders onto sorbitol: effects of particle size, state of sorbed water and surface free energy characteristics

A study has been made on the effects of the state of sorbed water, surface free energy characteristics and particle size on the 'adsorption' of fine antibiotic powders (ampicillin and amoxycillin trihydrates, cephalexin monohydrate and erythromycin ethylsuccinate) onto a special type of sorbitol (instant). 'Adsorption' was assessed by sieving before and after mixing, surface free energy characteristics were derived from contact angle measurements and state of sorbed water from sorption/desorption isotherms at different relative humidity, at 25 and 45 degrees C. It was found that sorbed water was externally located on sorbitol and erythromycin ethylsuccinate and internally on ampicillin, amoxycillin trihydrates and on cephalexin monohydrate, but in a different way of association as strongly bound hydrate and loosely bound hydrate water (reversible and exothermic for the latter). Erythromycin, with the highest interfacial energy value, resulted in greater extent of 'adsorption' than cephalexin of similar particle size, which had the lowest interfacial energy. The presence of sorbed water increased the 'adsorption' of ampicillin and amoxycillin trihydrates due to the contribution of capillary forces and due to their ability of hydrogen bonding at plactisized regions of sorbitol with higher moisture content and molecular mobility. The plactisizing effect of water sorbed on sorbitol is demonstrated by a logarithmic decrease of the yield pressure/elastic recovery ratio. The 'adsorption' of the low interfacial energy cephalexin monohydrate did not increase with the presence of water sorbed on sorbitol, presumably due to the lack of intermolecular hydrogen bonding ability, while 'adsorption' of erythromycin ethylsuccinate decreased, probably due to masking of the interparticle forces (van der Waal and electrostatic).

Adhesion of powders for inhalation: an evaluation of drug detachment from surfaces following deposition from aerosol streams

PURPOSE

To evaluate micronized powder retention and detachment from inhaler surfaces following reproducible deposition by impaction, coupled with centrifugal particle detachment (CPD).

METHODS

Micronized albuterol sulfate (AS) and beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) were aerosolized as dry powders and deposited by cascade impaction onto different contact surfaces. Drug detachment from the surfaces was characterized using CPD, coupled with HPLC assay and scanning electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Drugs which accumulated as aggregates on model surfaces detached with distinctive profiles for % remaining vs. applied centrifugal force; each profile showed reproducible values for the minimum force required to initiate drug detachment, Fyield. While differences occurred in the observed detachment profiles for different drugs and contact surfaces (polyacetal vs. aluminum), the deposited drug particle size had the most significant effect on these profiles, e.g., Fyield for AS (2.1-3.3 microm) was 383 +/- 12.7 microN compared with 18 +/- 13.8 microN for AS (4.7-5.8 microm).

CONCLUSIONS

A technique was developed which enabled the experimental review, and subsequent data analysis, of the adhesive properties between different DPI construction materials and drug substances deposited from aerosol clouds. The technique appears to be of greater relevance to inhaler design decisions than earlier studies in the literature claiming to show differences in the adhesion of single drug particles to surfaces.

The effect of blending time on particle adhesion in a model interactive system

The adhesive tendency of drug particles in a model drug carrier interactive system increased with blending time. The degree of interaction was measured using a centrifuge technique; the resultant adhesion profile of per cent retained on the carrier versus the square of the speed of rotation was a logarithmic normal function that allowed the determination of the S50 to characterize the adhesion tendency. The relative degree of adhesion of the drug particles in the interactive mixtures and the rate to attain adhesion saturation in the interactive system during the mixing process was markedly different for the three mixtures studied. The increased adhesive tendencies during blending were probably associated with triboelectrification of the drug and carrier particles.