Association Between Hypertension, Menopause, and Cognition in Women

Associations Between Age at Menopause, Vascular Risk, and 3-Year Cognitive Change in the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Mounting evidence supports sex differences in Alzheimer disease (AD) risk. Vascular and hormonal factors may together contribute to AD risk in female adults. We investigated whether age at menopause, vascular risk, and history of hormone therapy (HT) containing estrogens together influence cognition over a 3-year follow-up period. We hypothesized that earlier menopause and elevated vascular risk would have a synergistic association with lower cognitive scores at follow-up and that HT containing estrogens would attenuate this synergistic association to preserve cognition.

METHODS

We used data from postmenopausal female participants and age-matched male participants in the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Vascular risk was calculated using a summary score of elevated blood pressure, antihypertensive medications, elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, and obesity. Cognition was measured with a global cognitive composite at baseline and 3-year follow-up. Linear models tested independent and interactive associations of age at menopause, vascular risk, and HT history with cognition at 3-year follow-up, adjusting for baseline cognition, baseline age, years of education, and test language (English/French).

RESULTS

We included 8,360 postmenopausal female participants (mean age at baseline = 65.0 ± 8.53 years, mean age at menopause = 50.1 ± 4.62 years) and 8,360 age-matched male participants for comparison. There was an interaction between age at menopause and vascular risk, such that earlier menopause and higher vascular risk were synergistically associated with lower cognitive scores at follow-up (β = 0.013, 95% CI 0.001-0.025, p = 0.03). In stratified analyses, vascular risk was associated with lower cognitive scores in female participants with earlier menopause (menopausal ages 35-48 years; β = -0.044, 95% CI -0.066 to -0.022, p < 0.001), but not average (ages 49-52 years; β = -0.007, 95% CI -0.027 to 0.012, p = 0.46) or later menopause (ages 53-65 years; β = 0.003, 95% CI -0.020 to 0.025, p = 0.82). The negative association of vascular risk with cognition in female participants with earlier menopause was stronger than the equivalent association in age-matched male participants. HT history did not further modify the synergistic association of age at menopause and vascular risk with follow-up cognition (β = -0.005, 95% CI -0.032 to 0.021, p = 0.69).

DISCUSSION

Endocrine and vascular processes may synergistically contribute to increased risk of cognitive decline in female adults. These findings have implications for the development of sex-specific dementia prevention strategies.

Soluble and insoluble protein aggregates, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and vascular dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular diseases

Dementia refers to a particular group of symptoms characterized by difficulties with memory, language, problem-solving, and other thinking skills that affect a person's ability to perform everyday activities. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, affecting about 6.2 million Americans aged 65 years and older. Likewise, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a major cause of disability and premature death, impacting 126.9 million adults in the USA, a number that increases with age. Consequently, CVDs and cardiovascular risk factors are associated with an increased risk of AD and cognitive impairment. They share important age-related cardiometabolic and lifestyle risk factors, that make them among the leading causes of death. Additionally, there are several premises and hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying the association between AD and CVD. Although AD and CVD may be considered deleterious to health, the study of their combination constitutes a clinical challenge, and investigations to understand the mechanistic pathways for the cause-effect and/or shared pathology between these two disease constellations remains an active area of research. AD pathology is propagated by the amyloid β (Aβ) peptides. These peptides give rise to small, toxic, and soluble Aβ oligomers (SPOs) that are nonfibrillar, and it is their levels that show a robust correlation with the extent of cognitive impairment. This review will elucidate the interplay between the effects of accumulating SPOs in AD and CVDs, the resulting ER stress response, and their role in vascular dysfunction. We will also address the potential underlying mechanisms, including the possibility that SPOs are among the causes of vascular injury in CVD associated with cognitive decline. By revealing common mechanistic underpinnings of AD and CVD, we hope that novel experimental therapeutics can be designed to reduce the burden of these devastating diseases. Graphical abstract Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology leads to the release of Aβ peptides, and their accumulation in the peripheral organs has varying effects on various components of the cardiovascular system including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and vascular damage. Image created with BioRender.com.

Cognitive Decline in Early and Premature Menopause

Early and premature menopause, or premature ovarian insufficiency (POI), affects 1% of women under the age of 40 years. This paper reviews the main aspects of early and premature menopause and their impact on cognitive decline. Based on the literature, cognitive complaints are more common near menopause: a phase marked by a decrease in hormone levels, especially estrogen. A premature reduction in estrogen puts women at a higher risk for cardiovascular disease, parkinsonism, depression, osteoporosis, hypertension, weight gain, midlife diabetes, as well as cognitive disorders and dementia, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Experimental and epidemiological studies suggest that female sex hormones have long-lasting neuroprotective and anti-aging properties. Estrogens seem to prevent cognitive disorders arising from a cholinergic deficit in women and female animals in middle age premature menopause that affects the central nervous system (CNS) directly and indirectly, both transiently and in the long term, leads to cognitive impairment or even dementia, mainly due to the decrease in estrogen levels and comorbidity with cardiovascular risk factors, autoimmune diseases, and aging. Menopausal hormone therapy from menopause to the age of 60 years may provide a "window of opportunity" to reduce the risk of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD in later life. Women with earlier menopause should be taken care of by various specialists such as gynecologists, endocrinologists, neurologists, and psychiatrists in order to maintain their mental health at the highest possible level.

Cognitive performance of women at various stages of reproductive aging and associated risk factors

OBJECTIVE

Menopausal transition among midlife women is accompanied by the issues of hot flushes, mood swings as well as sleep disturbances, night sweats, urogenital diminution and cognitive changes. The present cross-sectional study is an attempt to recognize the cognitive differences associated with various stages of reproductive aging.

METHODS

The study included women (N = 404) aged between 40 and 65 years from rural areas of Punjab (North India). The Mini-Mental State Examination (Hindi version) was used to evaluate orientation, registration, attention, recall, language and visual spatial skills domains of the global cognitive functioning of all participants.

RESULTS

The results of the present study exhibited a decline in cognitive scores across successive menopausal transitional stages in most of the cognitive domains except registration. The results of multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that illiteracy, vegetarian diet, perimenopause and late postmenopause phase were significantly associated with lower global cognitive scores.

CONCLUSION

With increased longevity, early identification of potential risk factors associated with cognitive decline among women during their midlife can be beneficial in improving the mental health of postmenopausal women.

Heart-brain interactions in cardiac and brain diseases: why sex matters

Cardiovascular disease and brain disorders, such as depression and cognitive dysfunction, are highly prevalent conditions and are among the leading causes limiting patient's quality of life. A growing body of evidence has shown an intimate crosstalk between the heart and the brain, resulting from a complex network of several physiological and neurohumoral circuits. From a pathophysiological perspective, both organs share common risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking or dyslipidaemia, and are similarly affected by systemic inflammation, atherosclerosis, and dysfunction of the neuroendocrine system. In addition, there is an increasing awareness that physiological interactions between the two organs play important roles in potentiating disease and that sex- and gender-related differences modify those interactions between the heart and the brain over the entire lifespan. The present review summarizes contemporary evidence of the effect of sex on heart-brain interactions and how these influence pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, and treatment responses of specific heart and brain diseases.

Sex Differences in the Association Between Midlife Cardiovascular Conditions or Risk Factors With Midlife Cognitive Decline

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The prevalence of midlife cardiovascular conditions and risk factors is higher in men than women. Associations between midlife cardiovascular conditions or risk factors and midlife cognitive decline have been reported, but few studies have assessed sex differences in these associations.

METHODS

We included 1,857 participants enrolled in the population-based Mayo Clinic Study of Aging who were 50 to 69 years of age at baseline. Participants were evaluated every 15 months by a coordinator, including neurologic evaluation and neuropsychological testing. The neuropsychological testing used 9 tests to calculate global cognitive and domain-specific (memory, language, executive function, and visuospatial skills) z scores. Nurse abstractors reviewed participant medical records to determine the presence of cardiovascular conditions (coronary heart disease, arrhythmias, congestive heart failure) and risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, ever smoking). Linear mixed-effect models evaluated the association between baseline cardiovascular conditions or risk factors and global and domain-specific cognitive decline. Multivariable models adjusted for demographics, APOE genotype, depression, and other medical conditions. Interactions between sex and each cardiovascular condition or risk factor were examined, and results were stratified by sex.

RESULTS

Overall, 1,465 (78.9%) participants had at least 1 cardiovascular condition or risk factor; the proportion of men was higher than women (767 [83.4%] vs 698 [74.5%], p < 0.0001). Cross-sectionally, coronary heart disease and ever smoking were associated with a lower visuospatial z score in multivariable models. Longitudinally, several cardiovascular conditions and risk factors were associated with declines in global and domain-specific z scores but not visuospatial z scores. Most cardiovascular conditions were more strongly associated with cognition among women: coronary heart disease and other cardiovascular conditions were associated with global cognitive decline only in women (all p < 0.05). In addition, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and coronary heart disease were associated with language z score decline only in women (all p < 0.05). However, congestive heart failure was associated with language z score decline only in men (all p < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

Midlife cardiovascular conditions and risk factors are associated with midlife cognitive decline. Moreover, specific cardiovascular conditions and risk factors have stronger associations with cognitive decline in midlife for women than men despite the higher prevalence of those conditions in men.

Is cognitive performance of women sensitive to the severity of menopausal symptoms?

OBJECTIVE

Menopause is a natural phenomenon among women during their midlife, which is accompanied by unfavorable physical, physiological, and psychological consequences. Therefore, the major aim of the present cross-sectional study was to examine whether the cognitive performance of women is sensitive to the severity of menopausal symptoms.

METHODS

A total number of 404 rural women aged between 40 and 65 years were included in the present study. The menopausal symptoms and cognitive performance of the women were assessed using the Greene Climacteric Scale and Hindi Mini-Mental State Examination scale respectively.

RESULTS

The results of the present study demonstrated that women experiencing severe menopausal symptoms (higher Total Greene climacteric score) presented significantly lower mean values for orientation (8.11 vs 8.90, P < 0.001), registration (2.77 vs 2.91, P < 0.001), attention (4.31 vs 4.48, P < 0.01), recall (2.26 vs 2.53, P < 0.05), and language/visuo-spatial skills (7.13 vs 7.91, P < 0.001) as compared with their counterparts with mild menopausal symptoms. The multivariate linear regression model (after adjustment for age, marital status, and educational status) recorded severe depression and greater sexual dysfunction as the factors significantly associated with lower Mini-Mental State Examination scores.

CONCLUSION

Hence, the findings of the present study indicated that the cognitive performance of women was sensitive to severe depression and sexual dysfunction.

Associations of changes in late-life blood pressure with cognitive impairment among older population in China

Background

The cognitive impact of changes in late-life blood pressure is less clear. We aimed to investigate the association between late-life blood pressure changing pattern and risk of cognitive impairment.

Methods

Using data from the community-based Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey, change in systolic (SBP) or diastolic (DBP) blood pressure was calculated as the difference between follow-up and baseline, cognitive impairment was defined based on both the Mini-Mental State Examination and education level. The generalized additive model with penalized spline and multivariate logistic regression model were used, respectively, to examine the associations between continuous and categorized blood pressure changes with cognitive impairment at the follow-up wave.

Results

A total of 8493 Chinese elderly without cognitive impairment were included, with mean (standard deviation) age 80.6 (10.7) years. U-shaped associations between late-life blood pressure changes and risk of cognitive impairment were found, with only stable optimal blood pressure related to the lowest risk. For participants with baseline SBP around 130–150 mmHg, the adjusted odds ratio was 1.48 (1.13–1.93) for increasing follow-up SBP (> 150 mmHg), 1.28 (1.02–1.61) for decreasing follow-up SBP (< 130 mmHg), compared to stable follow-up SBP (130–150 mmHg). For participants with relative lower baseline DBP (< 80 mmHg), increasing their DBP to 80–90 mmHg during follow-up was associated with lower cognitive impairment risk (0.73 (0.58–0.93)), compared to steady low follow-up DBP (< 80 mmHg). Sex-specific analysis suggested that men were more vulnerable in term of SBP change.

Conclusions

Adhering to a stable optimal level of blood pressure in late-life is related to lower risk of cognitive impairment in Chinese elderly.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12877-021-02479-1.

Prevalence of pre-hypertension and hypertension, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, and cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women

BACKGROUND

Pre-hypertension (HTN) and HTN are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Despite its importance, HTN is often underestimated and undiagnosed, especially in women. This study was designed to determine the prevalence of pre-HTN and HTN among a large sample of Iranian menopausal women.

METHODS

This repeated cross-sectional study was conducted on 1013 menopausal women aged 41 to 85 years in Isfahan, Iran, in the years 2001, 2007, and 2016. The participants were selected through multistage cluster random sampling. Awareness, treatment, and control of HTN were assessed using a validated researcher-made questionnaire. Blood pressure was determined via an arm digital blood pressure monitor.

RESULTS

The prevalence of HTN in the years 2001, 2007, and 2016 was 52.6%, 49.0%, and 51.6%, respectively; no significant changes were observed (P > 0.05). The prevalence of pre-HTN in these years was 56.6%, 53.3%, and 42.2%, respectively. In 2001 and 2007, respectively, 28.8% and 50.4% of menopausal women had HTN controlled by medication, and in 2016, 86.6% of women were aware of their disease and 62% of them had controlled HTN (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The results showed that HTN and pre-HTN were highly prevalent among Iranian menopausal women and markedly increased with age. Interventional population-based approaches are needed to improve knowledge and efficient practice that may help to lower the risk of HTN and CVD in this at-risk population.

Clinically Used Hormone Formulations Differentially Impact Memory, Anxiety-Like, and Depressive-Like Behaviors in a Rat Model of Transitional Menopause

A variety of U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved hormone therapy options are currently used to successfully alleviate unwanted symptoms associated with the changing endogenous hormonal milieu that occurs in midlife with menopause. Depending on the primary indication for treatment, different hormone therapy formulations are utilized, including estrogen-only, progestogen-only, or combined estrogen plus progestogen options. There is little known about how these formulations, or their unique pharmacodynamics, impact neurobiological processes. Seemingly disparate pre-clinical and clinical findings regarding the cognitive effects of hormone therapies, such as the negative effects associated with conjugated equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate vs. naturally circulating 17β-estradiol (E2) and progesterone, signal a critical need to further investigate the neuro-cognitive impact of hormone therapy formulations. Here, utilizing a rat model of transitional menopause, we administered either E2, progesterone, levonorgestrel, or combinations of E2 with progesterone or with levonorgestrel daily to follicle-depleted, middle-aged rats. A battery of assessments, including spatial memory, anxiety-like behaviors, and depressive-like behaviors, as well as endocrine status and ovarian follicle complement, were evaluated. Results indicate divergent outcomes for memory, anxiety, and depression, as well as unique physiological profiles, that were dependent upon the hormone regimen administered. Overall, the combination hormone treatments had the most consistently favorable profile for the domains evaluated in rats that had undergone experimentally induced transitional menopause and remained ovary-intact. The collective results underscore the importance of investigating variations in hormone therapy formulation as well as the menopause background upon which these formulations are delivered.

Oestrogen treatment modulates the impact of cognitive experience and task complexity on memory in middle-aged surgically menopausal rats

Menopause has been linked to changes in memory. Oestrogen-containing hormone therapy is prescribed to treat menopause-related symptoms and can ameliorate memory changes, although the parameters impacting oestrogen-related memory efficacy are unclear. Cognitive experience and practice have been shown to be neuroprotective and to improve learning and memory during ageing, with the type of task playing a role in subsequent cognitive outcomes. Whether task complexity matters, and whether these outcomes interact with menopause and oestrogen status, remains unknown. To investigate this, we used a rat model of surgical menopause to systematically assess whether maze task complexity, as well as order of task presentation, impacts spatial learning and memory during middle age when rats received vehicle, low-17β-oestradiol (E2 ) or high-E2 treatment. The direction, and even presence, of the effects of prior maze experience differed depending on the E2 dose. Surgical menopause without E2 treatment yielded the least benefit, as prior maze experience did not have a substantial effect on subsequent task performance for vehicle treated rats regardless of task demand level during the first exposure to maze experience or final testing. High-dose E2 yielded a variable benefit, and low-dose E2 produced the greatest benefit. Specifically, low-dose E2 broadly enhanced learning and memory in surgically menopausal rats that had prior experience on another task, regardless of the complexity level of this prior experience. These results demonstrate that E2 dose influences the impact of prior cognitive experience on learning and memory during ageing, and highlights the importance of prior cognitive experience in subsequent learning and memory outcomes.

The impact of sex and gender on heart-brain axis dysfunction: current concepts and novel perspectives

The heart-brain axis (HBA) recapitulates all the circuits that regulate bidirectional flow of communication between heart and brain. Several mechanisms may underlie the interdependent relationship involving heterogeneous tissues at rest and during specific target organ injury such as myocardial infarction, heart failure, arrhythmia, stroke, mood disorders, or dementia. In-depth translational studies of the HBA dysfunction under single-organ injury should include both male and female animals to develop sex- and gender-oriented prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Indeed, sex and gender are determining factors as females and males exhibit significant differences in terms of susceptibility to risk factors, age of onset, severity of symptoms, and outcome. Despite most studies having focused on the male population, we have conducted a careful appraisal of the literature investigating HBA in females. In particular, we have (i) analyzed sex-related heart and brain illnesses, (ii) recapitulated the most significant studies simultaneously conducted on cardio- and cerebro-vascular systems in female populations, and (iii) hypothesized future perspectives for the development of a gender-based approach to HBA dysfunction. Although sex- and gender-oriented research is at its infancy, the impact of sex on HBA dysfunction is opening unexpected new avenues for managing the health of female subjects exposed to risk of lifestyle multi-organ disease.

Cognitive function and associated factors among postmenopausal women with hypertension and natural menopause in Taiwan

Hypertension is prevalent among postmenopausal women worldwide and is a risk factor for cognitive impairment. This study examined the cognitive differences between Taiwanese postmenopausal women with and without hypertension after natural menopause and identified factors associated with cognitive function in hypertensive postmenopausal women. A two-group comparative design study of 171 Taiwanese postmenopausal participants (mean age = 64.8±6.6) was conducted in southern Taiwan. Cognitive performance on neuropsychological tests was evaluated, and demographic, health, menopausal, and disease related variables were assessed. Compared to the non-hypertensive group, women with hypertension showed significantly worse performance and a higher percentage of impairment in global cognitive functioning and memory. Fewer years of education and longer duration of hypertension were associated with lower global cognitive function, and increased age was associated with lower scores in delayed memory. Cognitive screening as well as training on global cognitive functioning and memory are needed for postmenopausal hypertensive women. (148 words).

A long-term cyclic plus tonic regimen of 17β-estradiol improves the ability to handle a high spatial working memory load in ovariectomized middle-aged female rats

The influence of estrogens on modifying cognition has been extensively studied, revealing that a wide array of factors can significantly impact cognition, including, but not limited to, subject age, estrogen exposure duration, administration mode, estrogen formulation, stress history, and progestogen presence. Less known is whether long-term, extended exposure to estrogens would benefit or otherwise impact cognition. The present study examined the effects of 17β-estradiol (E2) exposure for seven months, beginning in late adulthood and continuing into middle age, using a regimen of cyclic exposure (bi-monthly subcutaneous injection of 10 μg E2), or Cyclic+Tonic exposure (bi-monthly subcutaneous injection of 10 μg E2 + Silastic capsules of E2) in ovariectomized female Fischer-344-CDF rats. Subjects were tested on a battery of learning and memory tasks. All groups learned the water radial-arm maze (WRAM) and Morris water maze tasks in a similar fashion, regardless of hormone treatment regimen. In the asymptotic phase of the WRAM, rats administered a Cyclic+Tonic E2 regimen showed enhanced performance when working memory was taxed compared to Vehicle and Cyclic E2 groups. Assessment of spatial memory on object placement and object recognition was not possible due to insufficient exploration of objects; however, the Cyclic+Tonic group showed increased total time spent exploring all objects compared to Vehicle-treated animals. Overall, these data demonstrate that long-term Cyclic+Tonic E2 exposure can result in some long-term cognitive benefits, at least in the spatial working memory domain, in a surgically menopausal rat model.

Does Gender Influence the Relationship Between High Blood Pressure and Dementia? Highlighting Areas for Further Investigation

BACKGROUND

Gender differences have been noted in studies linking blood pressure to all-cause dementia, and the two most common forms of dementia: Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VaD). However, how gender modifies the relationship between blood pressure and dementia remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To review evidence for a gender modifying effect on the link between blood pressure and all-cause dementia.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. Sixteen out of 256 reviewed articles met inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

For women, higher midlife systolic blood pressure (SBP) and hypertension were both associated with greater risk of all-cause dementia, AD, and VaD, in six out of seven studies. Two of these studies reported higher midlife SBP/hypertension were associated with greater risk for all-cause dementia in women, but not men. One study reported higher midlife SBP associated with greater AD risk in women, but not men. However, another study reported that midlife hypertension associated with AD risk in men, but not women. No clear gender differences were reported in the relationship between late-life high blood pressure/hypertension with all-cause dementia or AD.

CONCLUSION

Studies rarely, and inconsistently, analyzed or reported gender effects. Therefore, interpretation of available evidence regarding the role of gender in blood pressure associated dementia was difficult. Several studies indicated higher midlife SBP was associated with greater risk of all-cause dementia for women, compared to men. Future studies should evaluate women-specific aging processes that occur in midlife when considering the association between blood pressure and dementia risk.

Vascular and cognitive effects of cocoa-rich chocolate in postmenopausal women: a study protocol for a randomised clinical trial

INTRODUCTION

The intake of polyphenols has certain health benefits. This study will aim to assess the effect of adding a daily amount of chocolate high in cocoa content and polyphenols to the normal diet on blood pressure, vascular function, cognitive performance, quality of life and body composition in postmenopausal women.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Here we plan a randomised clinical trial with two parallel groups involving a total of 140 women between 50 and 64 years in the postmenopausal period, defined by amenorrhoea of ​​at least 12 consecutive months. The main variable will be the change in blood pressure. Secondary variables will be changes in vascular function, quality of life, cognitive performance and body composition. The intervention group will be given chocolate containing 99% cocoa, with instructions to add 10 g daily to their normal diet for 6 months. The daily nutritional contribution of this amount of chocolate is 59 kcal and 65.4 mg of polyphenols. There will be no intervention in the control group. All variables will be measured at the baseline visit and 3 and 6 months after randomisation, except cognitive performance and quality of life, which will only be assessed at baseline and at 6 months. Recruitment is scheduled to begin on 1 June 2018, and the study will continue until 31 May 2019.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Health Area of Salamanca, Spain ('CREC of Health Area of Salamanca'), in February 2018. A SPIRIT checklist is available for this protocol. The clinical trial has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov provided by the US National Library of Medicine, number NCT03492983. The results will be disseminated through open access peer-reviewed journals, conference presentations, broadcast media and a presentation to stakeholders.

Health perception in menopausal women

AIM

The aim of this study is to find whether the worsening of health perception was related to the menopausal (MNP) state or to its negative consequences on cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRF) and the presence of depression/anxiety.

METHODS

In this study, 2,562 women, 1,357 (53%) MNP and 1,205 (47%) non-MNP, were analyzed. Blood pressure, heart rate, body mass index, waist circumference, and depression/anxiety screening using the Hospital Depression/Anxiety Scale (HADS) were measured. We collected a blood sample in fasting state for glycemia, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides. Logistic regression models were fitted with a backward method from the potentially confusing variables of the menopause study groups.

RESULTS

Age 49.4 (±15.9) years; 10.1% belonged to semi-rural population; 87.5% had children. Regarding the educational level, 22.1% had <5 years of education, 31.3% had between 6 and 7 years, 33.4% had between 8 and 12 years, and 13.2% had >12 years of education. The prevalence of CMRF was significantly higher in MNP women, except for smoking. We did not find any differences in the prevalence of depression or anxiety between MNP and non-MNP women. Health was perceived as worse among MNP women (P<0.05) and patients over 45 years of age than patients younger than 45 years. We found a relationship between the negative health perception with metabolic syndrome, depression, and anxiety, having children, smoking, residing in rural area, and low educational level; nevertheless, it is not correlative with MNP status.

CONCLUSION

Perceived health should be viewed as a multifaceted condition related to social circumstances, and various symptoms in women, including menopause symptoms, but not with MNP state itself.

Neurocognitive disorder in hypertensive patients. Heart-Brain Study

The relation between hypertension and cognitive impairment is an undisputable fact. The aims of this study were to determine the prevalence of cognitive impairment in hypertensive patients, to identify the most affected cognitive domain, and to observe the association with different parameters of hypertension and other vascular risk factors. A multicentre study was carried out, and 1281 hypertensive patients of both genders and ≥21 years of age were included. Data on the following parameters were obtained: cognitive status (Minimal Cognitive Examination), behavioural status (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), blood pressure, anthropometry, and biochemical profile. The average age was 60.2±13.5 years (71% female), and the educational level was 9.9±5.1 years. Global cognitive impairment was seen in 22.1%, executive dysfunction in 36.2%, and semantic memory impairment in 48.9%. Cognitive impairment was higher in males (36.8% vs. 30.06%) within both the 70-79-year-old and the ≥80-year-old (50% vs. 40%) age groups. Abnormal Clock Drawing Test results were related to high pulse pressure (p<0.0036), and abnormal Mini-Boston Naming Test results to both high systolic blood pressure (p<0.052) and pulse pressure (p<0.001). The treated/uncontrolled hypertensive group showed abnormal results both in the Mini Mental State Examination (OR, 0.73; p=0.036) and the Mini-Boston Naming Test (OR, 1.36; p=0.021). Among patients without cognitive impairment (MMSE >24), 29.4% presented executive dysfunction, and 41.5% semantic memory impairment. Cognitive impairment was higher in hypertensive patients than in the general population. Executive functions and semantic memory were the most affected cognitive domains. High systolic blood pressure and pulse pressure were associated with abnormal results in cognitive tests.

Effects of acupuncture in postmenopausal women with prehypertension or stage 1 hypertension: study protocol for a prospective, comparative, interventional cohort study

Background

Hypertension is a major cause of cardiovascular disease and associated mortality, and postmenopausal women are at a high risk of hypertension. We aim to investigate the hypotensive effect and safety of acupuncture, focusing on postmenopausal women with prehypertension and stage 1 hypertension. In addition, we aim to investigate whether the effect of acupuncture treatment differed, depending on Sasang Constitution and cold-heat pattern.

Methods

This study is designed as an intervention cohort study. Two hundred postmenopausal women aged <65 years with prehypertension or stage 1 hypertension living in Daejeon city in Korea will be recruited, and randomly assigned to either an acupuncture or no-treatment control group. The intervention will consist of four sessions; one session will include acupuncture performed 10 times for 4 weeks. There will be a 20-week observation period after each session, and the total study duration will be 96 weeks. Acupuncture will be applied at the bilateral Fengchi (GB20), Quchi (LI11), Zusanli (ST36), and Sameumgyo (SP6) acupoints. The effect of acupuncture will be evaluated by comparing the change in systolic and diastolic blood pressure between the acupuncture and control groups every 4 weeks until the end of the study.

Discussion

To evaluate the success of blood pressure management, long-term observation is required, but no long-term studies have been conducted to evaluate the effect of acupuncture on blood pressure in postmenopausal women. To our knowledge, this study will be the first long-term study to investigate this issue for more than 6-8 weeks.

[Menopause: Hypertension and vascular disease]

Hypertension is the main cardiovascular risk factor affecting 25% of women. Hormone changes and hypertension after menopause may lead to higher target organ damage and cardiovascular disease such as increased arterial stiffness, coronary diseases, chronic heart failure and stroke. The physiopathological mechanisms involved in the development of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases in menopausal women are controversial. There are pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences in both sexes, the women have more coughing when using the converting-enzyme inhibitors, more cramps when using thiazide diuretics and more oedema in the inferior limbs when using calcium antagonists. The aim of this review is to analyse possible physiopathological mechanisms involved in hypertension after menopause and to gain a better understanding of the biological effects mediated by vascular ageing in women when the level of oestrogen protective effect decreases over the vascular system.

The risk factors of 9-year follow-up on hypertension in middle-aged people in Tujia-Nationality settlement of China

The aim of this study was to investigate the risk factors of hypertension in middle-aged people within the Tujia-Nationality settlement in China. Demographics questionnaires and fitness tests were performed to identify the risk factors of hypertension in middle-aged people in the years 2005, 2010 and 2014 in the area of southwest Hubei of China. Of the 2428 participants, 568 were classified as hypertensive, giving an overall occurrence of hypertension at 23.4%, and the prevalence of hypertension was the highest in the year 2014 (34.9%). Furthermore, Tujia minority had a significantly higher risk for having hypertension (odds ratio=1.055 with 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.039-1.072; P=0.001) than Han people. Individuals with the lowest level of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) had a 2.483-fold risk for hypertension (95% CI, 1.530-4.031; P=0.001). Obesity and overweight individuals increased the risk by 3.470-fold and 2.124-fold, respectively, for having hypertension compared to normal weight people. Finally, white-collar workers had a 58.1 and 31.8% higher risk for hypertension than blue-collar workers in rural and urban areas, respectively. These results demonstrated that the prevalence of hypertension was higher between 2011 and 2014 in the area. The main risk factors for developing hypertension were found to be sex (as woman), Tujia minority, white-collar workers, overweight-obese, those with a middle school education, and those with the lowest CRF.

Impact of Hypertension on Cognitive Function: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

Age-related dementia, most commonly caused by Alzheimer disease or cerebrovascular factors (vascular dementia), is a major public health threat. Chronic arterial hypertension is a well-established risk factor for both types of dementia, but the link between hypertension and its treatment and cognition remains poorly understood. In this scientific statement, a multidisciplinary team of experts examines the impact of hypertension on cognition to assess the state of the knowledge, to identify gaps, and to provide future directions.

METHODS

Authors with relevant expertise were selected to contribute to this statement in accordance with the American Heart Association conflict-of-interest management policy. Panel members were assigned topics relevant to their areas of expertise, reviewed the literature, and summarized the available data.

RESULTS

Hypertension disrupts the structure and function of cerebral blood vessels, leads to ischemic damage of white matter regions critical for cognitive function, and may promote Alzheimer pathology. There is strong evidence of a deleterious influence of midlife hypertension on late-life cognitive function, but the cognitive impact of late-life hypertension is less clear. Observational studies demonstrated a cumulative effect of hypertension on cerebrovascular damage, but evidence from clinical trials that antihypertensive treatment improves cognition is not conclusive.

CONCLUSIONS

After carefully reviewing the literature, the group concluded that there were insufficient data to make evidence-based recommendations. However, judicious treatment of hypertension, taking into account goals of care and individual characteristics (eg, age and comorbidities), seems justified to safeguard vascular health and, as a consequence, brain health.