1
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Parkins A, Chen E, Rangel VM, Singh M, Xue L, Lisi GP, Pantouris G. Ligand-induced conformational changes enable intersubunit communications in D-dopachrome tautomerase. Biophys J 2023; 122:1268-1276. [PMID: 36804669 PMCID: PMC10111345 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2023.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
D-Dopachrome tautomerase (D-DT; or MIF-2) is a multifunctional protein with immunomodulatory properties and a documented pathogenic role in inflammation and cancer that is associated with activation of the cell surface receptor CD74. Alongside D-DT, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is also known to activate CD74, promoting pathogenesis. While the role of the MIF/CD74 axis has been extensively studied in various disease models, the late discovery of the D-DT/CD74 axis has led to a poor investigation into the D-DT-induced activation mechanism of CD74. A previous study has identified 4-(3-carboxyphenyl)-2,5-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (4-CPPC) as the first selective and reversible inhibitor of D-DT and reported its potency to block the D-DT-induced activation of CD74 in a cell-based model. In this study, we employ molecular dynamics simulations and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments to study 4-CPPC-induced changes to the dynamic profile of D-DT. We found that binding of the inhibitor remarkably promotes the conformational flexibility of C-terminal without impacting the structural stability of the biological assembly. Consequently, long-range intrasubunit (>11 Å) and intersubunit (>30 Å) communications are enabled between distal regions. Communication across the three subunits is accomplished via 4-CPPC, which serves as a communication bridge after Val113 is displaced from its hydrophobic pocket. This previously unrecognized structural property of D-DT is not shared with its human homolog, MIF, which exhibits an impressive C-terminal rigidity even in the presence of an inhibitor. Considering the previously reported role of MIF's C-terminal in the activation of CD74, our results break new ground for understanding the functionality of D-DT in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Parkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California
| | - Emily Chen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology & Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Vanessa M Rangel
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California
| | - Mandeep Singh
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California
| | - Liang Xue
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California
| | - George P Lisi
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology & Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Georgios Pantouris
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California.
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2
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Parkins A, Sandin SI, Knittel J, Franz AH, Ren J, de Alba E, Pantouris G. Underrepresented Impurities in 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate Affect the Catalytic Activity of Multiple Enzymes. Anal Chem 2023; 95:4957-4965. [PMID: 36877482 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a key immunostimulatory protein with regulatory properties in several disorders, including inflammation and cancer. All the reported inhibitors that target the biological activities of MIF have been discovered by testing against its keto/enol tautomerase activity. While the natural substrate is still unknown, model MIF substrates are used for kinetic experiments. The most extensively used model substrate is 4-hydroxyphenyl pyruvate (4-HPP), a naturally occurring intermediate of tyrosine metabolism. Here, we examine the impact of 4-HPP impurities in the precise and reproducible determination of MIF kinetic data. To provide unbiased evaluation, we utilized 4-HPP powders from five different manufacturers. Biochemical and biophysical analyses showed that the enzymatic activity of MIF is highly influenced by underrepresented impurities found in 4-HPP. Besides providing inconsistent turnover results, the 4-HPP impurities also influence the accurate calculation of ISO-1's inhibition constant, an MIF inhibitor that is broadly used for in vitro and in vivo studies. The macromolecular NMR data show that 4-HPP samples from different manufacturers result in differential chemical shift perturbations of amino acids in MIF's active site. Our MIF-based conclusions were independently evaluated and confirmed by 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) and D-dopachrome tautomerase (D-DT); two additional enzymes that utilize 4-HPP as a substrate. Collectively, these results explain inconsistencies in previously reported inhibition values, highlight the effect of impurities on the accurate determination of kinetic parameters, and serve as a tool for designing error-free in vitro and in vivo experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Parkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California 95211, United States
| | - Suzanne I Sandin
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Merced, California 95343, United States
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Graduate Program, University of California, Merced, California 95343, United States
| | - Jonathon Knittel
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California 95211, United States
| | - Andreas H Franz
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California 95211, United States
| | - Jianhua Ren
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California 95211, United States
| | - Eva de Alba
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Merced, California 95343, United States
| | - Georgios Pantouris
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California 95211, United States
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3
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Parkins A, Das P, Prahaladan V, Rangel VM, Xue L, Sankaran B, Bhandari V, Pantouris G. 2,5-Pyridinedicarboxylic acid is a bioactive and highly selective inhibitor of D-dopachrome tautomerase. Structure 2023; 31:355-367.e4. [PMID: 36805127 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2023.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and D-dopachrome tautomerase (D-DT) are two pleotropic cytokines, which are coexpressed in various cell types to activate the cell surface receptor CD74. Via the MIF/CD74 and D-DT/CD74 axes, the two proteins exhibit either beneficial or deleterious effect on human diseases. In this study, we report the identification of 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (a.k.a. 1) that effectively blocks the D-DT-induced activation of CD74 and demonstrates an impressive 79-fold selectivity for D-DT over MIF. Crystallographic characterization of D-DT-1 elucidates the binding features of 1 and reveals previously unrecognized differences between the MIF and D-DT active sites that explain the ligand's functional selectivity. The commercial availability, low cost, and high selectivity make 1 the ideal tool for studying the pathophysiological functionality of D-DT in disease models. At the same time, our comprehensive biochemical, computational, and crystallographic analyses serve as a guide for generating highly potent and selective D-DT inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Parkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Pragnya Das
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Regional Hospital at Cooper, Camden, NJ 08103, USA
| | - Varsha Prahaladan
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Regional Hospital at Cooper, Camden, NJ 08103, USA
| | - Vanessa M Rangel
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Liang Xue
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Banumathi Sankaran
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Berkeley Center for Structural Biology, 1 Cyclotron Road, Lawrence Berkeley Nat. Lab, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Vineet Bhandari
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Regional Hospital at Cooper, Camden, NJ 08103, USA
| | - Georgios Pantouris
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA.
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4
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Parkins A, Skeens E, McCallum CM, Lisi GP, Pantouris G. The N-terminus of MIF regulates the dynamic profile of residues involved in CD74 activation. Biophys J 2021; 120:3893-3900. [PMID: 34437846 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is an immunomodulatory protein with a pathogenic activity in various inflammatory disorders, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. The majority of MIF-triggered pathological conditions are associated with activation of the cell surface receptor CD74. In the absence of small molecule antagonists that directly target CD74, MIF variants and MIF-ligand complexes have served as modulators of CD74 activity. These molecules have been reported to have either antagonistic or agonistic effects against the receptor, although the mechanistic parameters that distinguish the two groups are largely unknown. Through molecular dynamics simulations and NMR experiments, we explored the relationship between MIF's catalytically active N-terminus and the surface residues important for the activation of CD74. We found that the two sites are connected via backbone dynamics that are propagated to the CD74 activation surface of MIF, from the β2 and β4 strands. Our results also provide mechanistic evidence that explain the functional characteristics of MIF variants, serving as CD74 agonists or antagonists. Such findings are of high importance for understanding the MIF-induced activation of CD74 as well as for the development of highly potent CD74 therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Parkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California
| | - Erin Skeens
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology & Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - C Michael McCallum
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California
| | - George P Lisi
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology & Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.
| | - Georgios Pantouris
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California.
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5
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Garai J, Krekó M, Őrfi L, Jakus PB, Rumbus Z, Kéringer P, Garami A, Vámos E, Kovács D, Bagóné Vántus V, Radnai B, Lóránd T. Tetralone derivatives are MIF tautomerase inhibitors and attenuate macrophage activation and amplify the hypothermic response in endotoxemic mice. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2021; 36:1357-1369. [PMID: 34225560 PMCID: PMC8266241 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2021.1916010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine playing crucial role in immunity. MIF exerts a unique tautomerase enzymatic activity that has relevance concerning its multiple functions and its small molecule inhibitors have been proven to block its pro-inflammatory effects. Here we demonstrate that some of the E-2-arylmethylene-1-tetralones and their heteroanalogues efficiently bind to MIF's active site and inhibit MIF tautomeric (enolase, ketolase activity) functions. A small set of the synthesised derivatives, namely compounds (4), (23), (24), (26) and (32), reduced inflammatory macrophage activation. Two of the selected compounds (24) and (26), however, markedly inhibited ROS and nitrite production, NF-κB activation, TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL-2 cytokine expression. Pre-treatment of mice with compound (24) exaggerated the hypothermic response to high dose of bacterial endotoxin. Our experiments suggest that tetralones and their derivatives inhibit MIF's tautomeric functions and regulate macrophage activation and thermal changes in severe forms of systemic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- János Garai
- Department of Pathophysiology, Institute for Translational Medicine, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Marcell Krekó
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - László Őrfi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter Balázs Jakus
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Rumbus
- Department of Thermophysiology, Institute for Translational Medicine, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Patrik Kéringer
- Department of Thermophysiology, Institute for Translational Medicine, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - András Garami
- Department of Thermophysiology, Institute for Translational Medicine, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Eszter Vámos
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Dominika Kovács
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Viola Bagóné Vántus
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Balázs Radnai
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tamás Lóránd
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
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6
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Sala V, Della Sala A, Ghigo A, Hirsch E. Roles of phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase gamma (PI3Kγ) in respiratory diseases. Cell Stress 2021; 5:40-51. [PMID: 33821232 PMCID: PMC8012884 DOI: 10.15698/cst2021.04.246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase gamma (PI3Kγ) is expressed in all the cell types that are involved in airway inflammation and disease, including not only leukocytes, but also structural cells, where it is expressed at very low levels under physiological conditions, while is significantly upregulated after stress. In the airways, PI3Kγ behaves as a trigger or a controller, depending on the pathological context. In this review, the contribution of PI3Kγ in a plethora of respiratory diseases, spanning from acute lung injury, pulmonary fibrosis, asthma, cystic fibrosis and response to both bacterial and viral pathogens, will be commented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Sala
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Angela Della Sala
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Alessandra Ghigo
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Torino, Italy.,Kither Biotech S.r.l. Via Nizza 52, 10126, Torino, Italy.,Equal contribution to senior authorship
| | - Emilio Hirsch
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Torino, Italy.,Kither Biotech S.r.l. Via Nizza 52, 10126, Torino, Italy.,Equal contribution to senior authorship
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7
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Fukushima K, Furuya M, Kamimura T, Takimoto-Kamimura M. Structure of macrophage migration inhibitory factor in complex with methotrexate. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D-STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 77:293-299. [PMID: 33645533 DOI: 10.1107/s2059798321000474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Methotrexate (MTX) is an anticancer and anti-rheumatoid arthritis drug that is considered to block nucleotide synthesis and the cell cycle mainly by inhibiting the activity of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). Using affinity-matrix technology and X-ray analysis, the present study shows that MTX also interacts with macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF). Fragment molecular-orbital calculations quantified the interaction between MTX and MIF based on the structure of the complex and revealed the amino acids that are effective in the interaction of MTX and MIF. It should be possible to design new small-molecule compounds that have strong inhibitory activity towards both MIF and DHFR by structure-based drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Fukushima
- Pharmaceutical Discovery Research Laboratories, Teijin Institute for Bio-Medical Research, 4-3-2 Asahigaoka, Hino-shi, Tokyo 191-8512, Japan
| | - Minoru Furuya
- Pharmaceutical Discovery Research Laboratories, Teijin Institute for Bio-Medical Research, 4-3-2 Asahigaoka, Hino-shi, Tokyo 191-8512, Japan
| | - Takashi Kamimura
- Veritas In Silico Inc., 1-11-1 Nishigotanda, Shinagawa, Tokyo 141-0031, Japan
| | - Midori Takimoto-Kamimura
- Pharmaceutical Discovery Research Laboratories, Teijin Institute for Bio-Medical Research, 4-3-2 Asahigaoka, Hino-shi, Tokyo 191-8512, Japan
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8
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Function, Regulation and Biological Roles of PI3Kγ Variants. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9090427. [PMID: 31480354 PMCID: PMC6770443 DOI: 10.3390/biom9090427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) γ is the only class IB PI3K member playing significant roles in the G-protein-dependent regulation of cell signaling in health and disease. Originally found in the immune system, increasing evidence suggest a wide array of functions in the whole organism. PI3Kγ occur as two different heterodimeric variants: PI3Kγ (p87) and PI3Kγ (p101), which share the same p110γ catalytic subunit but differ in their associated non-catalytic subunit. Here we concentrate on specific PI3Kγ features including its regulation and biological functions. In particular, the roles of its non-catalytic subunits serving as the main regulators determining specificity of class IB PI3Kγ enzymes are highlighted.
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9
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Khurana L, ElGindi M, Tilstam PV, Pantouris G. Elucidating the role of an immunomodulatory protein in cancer: From protein expression to functional characterization. Methods Enzymol 2019; 629:307-360. [PMID: 31727247 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2019.05.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Several fundamental discoveries made over the last two decades, in the field of cancer biology, have increased our understanding of the complex tumor micro- and macroenvironments. This has shifted the current empirical cancer therapies to more rationalized treatments targeting immunomodulatory proteins. From the point of identification, a protein target undergoes several interrogations, which are necessary to truly define its druggability. Here, we outline some basic steps that can be followed for in vitro characterization of a potential immunomodulatory protein target. We describe procedures for recombinant protein expression and purification including key annotations on protein cloning, expression systems, purification strategies and protein characterization using structural and biochemical approaches. For functional characterization, we provide detailed protocols for using flow-cytometric techniques in cell lines or primary cells to study protein expression profiles, proliferation, apoptosis and cell-cycle changes. This multilevel approach can provide valuable, in-depth understanding of any protein target with potential immunomodulatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leepakshi Khurana
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Mei ElGindi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Pathricia V Tilstam
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Georgios Pantouris
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Chemistry, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA, United States.
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10
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Pantouris G, Bucala R, Lolis EJ. Structural Plasticity in the C-Terminal Region of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor-2 Is Associated with an Induced Fit Mechanism for a Selective Inhibitor. Biochemistry 2018; 57:3599-3605. [PMID: 29847104 PMCID: PMC6123015 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We report the first reversible and selective small molecule inhibitor of pro-inflammatory protein macrophage migration inhibitory factor-2 (also known as MIF-2 or d-DT). 4-(3-Carboxyphenyl)-2,5-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (4-CPPC) shows competitive binding with a 13-fold selectivity for human MIF-2 versus human MIF-1. The crystal structure of MIF-2 complexed with 4-CPPC reveals an induced fit mechanism that is not observed in the numerous MIF-1/inhibitor complexes. Crystallographic analysis demonstrates the structural source of 4-CPPC binding and selectivity for MIF-2. 4-CPPC can be employed to reveal previously unrecognized functions of MIF-1 in biological systems in which both MIF-1 and MIF-2 are expressed, to improve our knowledge of the MIF family of proteins, and to provide new mechanistic insights that can be utilized for the development of potent and selective pharmacological modulators of MIF-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Pantouris
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States
| | - Richard Bucala
- Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States,Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States
| | - Elias J. Lolis
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States,Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States,Corresponding Author:
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11
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Trivedi-Parmar V, Jorgensen WL. Advances and Insights for Small Molecule Inhibition of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor. J Med Chem 2018; 61:8104-8119. [PMID: 29812929 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is an upstream regulator of the immune response whose dysregulation is tied to a broad spectrum of inflammatory and proliferative disorders. As its complex signaling pathways and pleiotropic nature have been elucidated, it has become an attractive target for drug discovery. Remarkably, MIF is both a cytokine and an enzyme that functions as a keto-enol tautomerase. Strategies including in silico modeling, virtual screening, high-throughput screening, and screening of anti-inflammatory natural products have led to a large and diverse catalogue of MIF inhibitors as well as some understanding of the structure-activity relationships for compounds binding MIF's tautomerase active site. With possible clinical trials of some MIF inhibitors on the horizon, it is an opportune time to review the literature to seek trends, address inconsistencies, and identify promising new avenues of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinay Trivedi-Parmar
- Department of Chemistry , Yale University , New Haven , Connecticut 06520-8107 , United States
| | - William L Jorgensen
- Department of Chemistry , Yale University , New Haven , Connecticut 06520-8107 , United States
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