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Zaid A, Ariel A. Harnessing anti-inflammatory pathways and macrophage nano delivery to treat inflammatory and fibrotic disorders. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2024; 207:115204. [PMID: 38342241 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2024.115204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Targeting specific organs and cell types using nanotechnology and sophisticated delivery methods has been at the forefront of applicative biomedical sciences lately. Macrophages are an appealing target for immunomodulation by nanodelivery as they are heavily involved in various aspects of many diseases and are highly plastic in their nature. Their continuum of functional "polarization" states has been a research focus for many years yielding a profound understanding of various aspects of these cells. The ability of monocyte-derived macrophages to metamorphose from pro-inflammatory to reparative and consequently to pro-resolving effectors has raised significant interest in its therapeutic potential. Here, we briefly survey macrophages' ontogeny and various polarization phenotypes, highlighting their function in the inflammation-resolution shift. We review their inducing mediators, signaling pathways, and biological programs with emphasis on the nucleic acid sensing-IFN-I axis. We also portray the polarization spectrum of macrophages and the characteristics of their transition between different subtypes. Finally, we highlighted different current drug delivery methods for targeting macrophages with emphasis on nanotargeting that might lead to breakthroughs in the treatment of wound healing, bone regeneration, autoimmune, and fibrotic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Zaid
- Department of Biology and Human Biology, University of Haifa, Haifa, 3498838 Israel
| | - Amiram Ariel
- Department of Biology and Human Biology, University of Haifa, Haifa, 3498838 Israel.
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Greco M, Munir A, Musarò D, Coppola C, Maffia M. Restoring autophagic function: a case for type 2 diabetes mellitus drug repurposing in Parkinson's disease. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1244022. [PMID: 38027497 PMCID: PMC10654753 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1244022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a predominantly idiopathic pathological condition characterized by protein aggregation phenomena, whose main component is alpha-synuclein. Although the main risk factor is ageing, numerous evidence points to the role of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) as an etiological factor. Systemic alterations classically associated with T2DM like insulin resistance and hyperglycemia modify biological processes such as autophagy and mitochondrial homeostasis. High glucose levels also compromise protein stability through the formation of advanced glycation end products, promoting protein aggregation processes. The ability of antidiabetic drugs to act on pathways impaired in both T2DM and PD suggests that they may represent a useful tool to counteract the neurodegeneration process. Several clinical studies now in advanced stages are looking for confirmation in this regard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Greco
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technology, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Anas Munir
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technology, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
- Department of Mathematics and Physics “E. De Giorgi”, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Debora Musarò
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technology, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Chiara Coppola
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technology, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
- Department of Mathematics and Physics “E. De Giorgi”, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Michele Maffia
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technology, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
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3
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Peng W, Yang Y, Chen J, Xu Z, Lou Y, Li Q, Zhao N, Qian K, Liu F. Small Extracellular Vesicles Secreted by iPSC-Derived MSCs Ameliorate Pulmonary Inflammation and Lung Injury Induced by Sepsis through Delivery of miR-125b-5p. J Immunol Res 2023; 2023:8987049. [PMID: 37425491 PMCID: PMC10329558 DOI: 10.1155/2023/8987049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Sepsis-induced acute lung injury is a common critical illness in intensive care units with no effective treatment is currently available. Small extracellular vesicles, secreted by mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iMSC-sEV), possess striking advantages when incorporated MSCs and iPSCs, which are considered extremely promising cell-free therapeutic agents. However, no studies have yet been conducted to systemically examine the effects and underlying mechanisms of iMSC-sEV application on attenuated lung injury under sepsis conditions. Method iMSC-sEV were intraperitoneally administered in a rat septic lung injury model induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The efficacy of iMSC-sEV was assessed by histology, immunohistochemistry, and pro-inflammatory cytokines of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. We also evaluated the in vitro effects of iMSC-sEV on the activation of the inflammatory response in alveolar macrophages (AMs). Small RNA sequencing was utilized to detect changes in the miRNA expression profile in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated AMs after iMSC-sEV administration. The effects of miR-125b-5p on the function of AMs were studied. Results iMSC-sEV were able to attenuate pulmonary inflammation and lung injury following CLP-induced lung injury. iMSC-sEV were internalized by AMs and alleviated the release of inflammatory factors by inactivating the NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, miR-125b-5p showed a fold-change in LPS-treated AMs after iMSC-sEV administration and was enriched in iMSC-sEV. Mechanistically, iMSC-sEV transmitted miR-125b-5p into LPS-treated AMs to target TRAF6. Conclusion Our findings demonstrated that iMSC-sEV treatment protects against septic lung injury and exerts anti-inflammatory effects on AMs at least partially through miR-125b-5p, suggesting that iMSC-sEV may provide a novel cell-free strategy for the treatment of septic lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Peng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Yun Yang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The People's Hospital of Fengcheng City, Yichun, Jiangxi, China
| | - Jiaquan Chen
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Zeyao Xu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Yuanlei Lou
- Institute of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ning Zhao
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Kejian Qian
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Fen Liu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
- Medical Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
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Dong Y, Qi Y, Jiang H, Mi T, Zhang Y, Peng C, Li W, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Zang Y, Li J. The development and benefits of metformin in various diseases. Front Med 2023; 17:388-431. [PMID: 37402952 DOI: 10.1007/s11684-023-0998-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
Metformin has been used for the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus for decades due to its safety, low cost, and outstanding hypoglycemic effect clinically. The mechanisms underlying these benefits are complex and still not fully understood. Inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory-chain complex I is the most described downstream mechanism of metformin, leading to reduced ATP production and activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Meanwhile, many novel targets of metformin have been gradually discovered. In recent years, multiple pre-clinical and clinical studies are committed to extend the indications of metformin in addition to diabetes. Herein, we summarized the benefits of metformin in four types of diseases, including metabolic associated diseases, cancer, aging and age-related diseases, neurological disorders. We comprehensively discussed the pharmacokinetic properties and the mechanisms of action, treatment strategies, the clinical application, the potential risk of metformin in various diseases. This review provides a brief summary of the benefits and concerns of metformin, aiming to interest scientists to consider and explore the common and specific mechanisms and guiding for the further research. Although there have been countless studies of metformin, longitudinal research in each field is still much warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yingbei Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310024, China
| | - Haowen Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Tian Mi
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yunkai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chang Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wanchen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yongmei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310024, China
| | - Yubo Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan, 528400, China.
| | - Yi Zang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310024, China.
| | - Jia Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Open Studio for Druggability Research of Marine Natural Products, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266237, China.
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310024, China.
- Shandong Laboratory of Yantai Drug Discovery, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery, Yantai, 264117, China.
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Zhou LH, Zou H, Hao JY, Huang Y, Zhang JN, Xu XH, Li J. Metformin inhibits ovarian granular cell pyroptosis through the miR-670-3p/NOX2/ROS pathway. Aging (Albany NY) 2023; 15:204745. [PMID: 37244286 DOI: 10.18632/aging.204745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that ovarian granular cells (OGCs) pyroptosis is present in the ovaries of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) mice and that NLRP3 activation destroys follicular functions. Metformin has been shown to protect against PCOS by reducing insulin resistance in women, whereas its role in OGC pyroptosis is unknown. This study aimed to investigate the impact of metformin on OGC pyroptosis and the underlying mechanisms. The results showed that treating a human granulosa-like tumor cell line (KGN) with metformin significantly decreased LPS-induced expression of miR-670-3p, NOX2, NLRP3, ASC, cleaved caspase-1, and GSDMD-N. Cellular caspase-1 activity; ROS production; oxidative stress; and the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α were also diminished. These effects were amplified by adding N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), a pharmacological inhibitor of ROS. In contrast, metformin's anti-pyroptosis and anti-inflammatory effects were robustly ameliorated by NOX2 overexpression in KGN cells. Moreover, bioinformatic analyses, RT-PCR, and Western blotting showed that miR-670-3p could directly bind to the NOX2 (encoded by the CYBB gene in humans) 3'UTR and decrease NOX2 expression. Metformin-induced suppression of NOX2 expression, ROS production, oxidative stress, and pyroptosis was significantly alleviated by transfection with the miR-670-3p inhibitor. These findings suggest that metformin inhibits KGN cell pyroptosis via the miR-670-3p/NOX2/ROS pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hua Zhou
- The Department of Reproductive Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
| | - Hui Zou
- The Department of Reproductive Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
| | - Jia-Yuan Hao
- The Department of Reproductive Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
| | - Yong Huang
- The Department of Reproductive Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
| | - Jia-Nan Zhang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Xu
- The Department of Reproductive Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
| | - Juan Li
- The Department of Reproductive Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou 570100, Hainan, China
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Yao Q, Wu X, Tao C, Gong W, Chen M, Qu M, Zhong Y, He T, Chen S, Xiao G. Osteoarthritis: pathogenic signaling pathways and therapeutic targets. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:56. [PMID: 36737426 PMCID: PMC9898571 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01330-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 220.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic degenerative joint disorder that leads to disability and affects more than 500 million population worldwide. OA was believed to be caused by the wearing and tearing of articular cartilage, but it is now more commonly referred to as a chronic whole-joint disorder that is initiated with biochemical and cellular alterations in the synovial joint tissues, which leads to the histological and structural changes of the joint and ends up with the whole tissue dysfunction. Currently, there is no cure for OA, partly due to a lack of comprehensive understanding of the pathological mechanism of the initiation and progression of the disease. Therefore, a better understanding of pathological signaling pathways and key molecules involved in OA pathogenesis is crucial for therapeutic target design and drug development. In this review, we first summarize the epidemiology of OA, including its prevalence, incidence and burdens, and OA risk factors. We then focus on the roles and regulation of the pathological signaling pathways, such as Wnt/β-catenin, NF-κB, focal adhesion, HIFs, TGFβ/ΒΜP and FGF signaling pathways, and key regulators AMPK, mTOR, and RUNX2 in the onset and development of OA. In addition, the roles of factors associated with OA, including MMPs, ADAMTS/ADAMs, and PRG4, are discussed in detail. Finally, we provide updates on the current clinical therapies and clinical trials of biological treatments and drugs for OA. Research advances in basic knowledge of articular cartilage biology and OA pathogenesis will have a significant impact and translational value in developing OA therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Yao
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Xiaohao Wu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Chu Tao
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Weiyuan Gong
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Mingjue Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Minghao Qu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yiming Zhong
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Tailin He
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Sheng Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China
| | - Guozhi Xiao
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
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Tao YC, Wang YH, Wang ML, Jiang W, Wu DB, Chen EQ, Tang H. Upregulation of microRNA-125b-5p alleviates acute liver failure by regulating the Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Front Immunol 2022; 13:988668. [PMID: 36268033 PMCID: PMC9578503 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.988668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute liver failure (ALF) and acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) are the two most common subtypes of liver failure. They are both life-threatening clinical problems with high short-term mortality. Although liver transplantation is an effective therapeutic, its application is limited due to the shortage of donor organs. Given that both ACLF and ALF are driven by excessive inflammation in the initial stage, molecules targeting inflammation may benefit the two conditions. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of small endogenous noncoding interfering RNA molecules. Regulation of miRNAs related to inflammation may serve as promising interventions for the treatment of liver failure. Aims To explore the role and mechanism of miR-125b-5p in the development of liver failure. Methods Six human liver tissues were categorized into HBV-non-ACLF and HBV-ACLF groups. Differentially expressed miRNAs (DE-miRNAs) were screened and identified through high-throughput sequencing analysis. Among these DE-miRNAs, miR-125b-5p was selected for further study of its role and mechanism in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/D-galactosamine (D-GalN) -challenged Huh7 cells and mice in vitro and in vivo. Results A total of 75 DE-miRNAs were obtained. Of these DE-miRNAs, miR-125b-5p was the focus of further investigation based on our previous findings and preliminary results. We preliminarily observed that the levels of miR-125b-5p were lower in the HBV-ACLF group than in the HBV-non-ACLF group. Meanwhile, LPS/D-GalN-challenged mice and Huh7 cells both showed decreased miR-125b-5p levels when compared to their untreated control group, suggesting that miR-125b-5p may have a protective role against liver injury, regardless of ACLF or ALF. Subsequent results revealed that miR-125b-5p not only inhibited Huh7 cell apoptosis in vitro but also relieved mouse ALF in vivo with evidence of improved liver histology, decreased alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, and reduced tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-1β levels. Based on the results of a biological prediction website, microRNA.org, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) was predicted to be one of the target genes of miR-125b-5p, which was verified by a dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. Western blot results in vitro and in vivo showed that miR-125b-5p could decrease the expression of Keap1 and cleaved caspase-3 while upregulating the expression of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1(HO-1). Conclusion Upregulation of miR-125b-5p can alleviate acute liver failure by regulating the Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, and regulation of miR-125b-5p may serve as an alternative intervention for liver failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Chao Tao
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yong-Hong Wang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Meng-Lan Wang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Dong-Bo Wu
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - En-Qiang Chen
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,*Correspondence: Hong Tang, ; En-Qiang Chen,
| | - Hong Tang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China,*Correspondence: Hong Tang, ; En-Qiang Chen,
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8
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Song Y, Wu Z, Zhao P. The effects of metformin in the treatment of osteoarthritis: Current perspectives. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:952560. [PMID: 36081941 PMCID: PMC9445495 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.952560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is a chronic and irreversible disease of the locomotor system which is closely associated with advancing age. Pain and limited mobility frequently affect the quality of life in middle-aged and older adults. With a global population of more than 350 million, osteoarthritis is becoming a health threat alongside cancer and cardiovascular disease. It is challenging to find effective treatments to promote cartilage repair and slow down disease progression. Metformin is the first-line drug for patients with type 2 diabetes, and current perspectives suggest that it cannot only lower glucose but also has anti-inflammatory and anti-aging properties. Experimental studies applying metformin for the treatment of osteoarthritis have received much attention in recent years. In our review, we first presented the history of metformin and the current status of osteoarthritis, followed by a brief review of the mechanism that metformin acts, involving AMPK-dependent and non-dependent pathways. Moreover, we concluded that metformin may be beneficial in the treatment of osteoarthritis by inhibiting inflammation, modulating autophagy, antagonizing oxidative stress, and reducing pain levels. Finally, we analyzed the relevant evidence from animal and human studies. The potential of metformin for the treatment of osteoarthritis deserves to be further explored.
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Chalmers JA, Dalvi PS, Loganathan N, McIlwraith EK, Wellhauser L, Nazarians-Armavil A, Eversley JA, Mohan H, Stahel P, Dash S, Wheeler MB, Belsham DD. Hypothalamic miR-1983 Targets Insulin Receptor β and the Insulin-mediated miR-1983 Increase Is Blocked by Metformin. Endocrinology 2022; 163:6433013. [PMID: 34919671 PMCID: PMC8682955 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) expressed in the hypothalamus are capable of regulating energy balance and peripheral metabolism by inhibiting translation of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Hypothalamic insulin resistance is known to precede that in the periphery, thus a critical unanswered question is whether central insulin resistance creates a specific hypothalamic miRNA signature that can be identified and targeted. Here we show that miR-1983, a unique miRNA, is upregulated in vitro in 2 insulin-resistant immortalized hypothalamic neuronal neuropeptide Y-expressing models, and in vivo in hyperinsulinemic mice, with a concomitant decrease of insulin receptor β subunit protein, a target of miR-1983. Importantly, we demonstrate that miR-1983 is detectable in human blood serum and that its levels significantly correlate with blood insulin and the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance. Levels of miR-1983 are normalized with metformin exposure in mouse hypothalamic neuronal cell culture. Our findings provide evidence for miR-1983 as a unique biomarker of cellular insulin resistance, and a potential therapeutic target for prevention of human metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Chalmers
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Prasad S Dalvi
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Current Affiliation: Prasad S. Dalvi is now at Morosky College of Health Professions and Sciences, Gannon University, Erie, Pennsylvania 16541, USA
| | - Neruja Loganathan
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Emma K McIlwraith
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Leigh Wellhauser
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | | | - Judith A Eversley
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Haneesha Mohan
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Priska Stahel
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Satya Dash
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - Michael B Wheeler
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - Denise D Belsham
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Correspondence: Denise D. Belsham, PhD, Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Bldg 3247A, 1 Kings College Cir, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada.
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Pescador N, Francisco V, Vázquez P, Esquinas EM, González-Páramos C, Valdecantos MP, García-Martínez I, Urrutia AA, Ruiz L, Escalona-Garrido C, Foretz M, Viollet B, Fernández-Moreno MÁ, Calle-Pascual AL, Obregón MJ, Aragonés J, Valverde ÁM. Metformin reduces macrophage HIF1α-dependent proinflammatory signaling to restore brown adipocyte function in vitro. Redox Biol 2021; 48:102171. [PMID: 34736121 PMCID: PMC8577482 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.102171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic potential of metformin in obese/diabetic patients has been associated to its ability to combat insulin resistance. However, it remains largely unknown the signaling pathways involved and whether some cell types are particularly relevant for its beneficial effects. M1-activation of macrophages by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) promotes a paracrine activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF1α) in brown adipocytes which reduces insulin signaling and glucose uptake, as well as β-adrenergic sensitivity. Addition of metformin to M1-polarized macrophages blunted these signs of brown adipocyte dysfunction. At the molecular level, metformin inhibits an inflammatory program executed by HIF1α in macrophages by inducing its degradation through the inhibition of mitochondrial complex I activity, thereby reducing oxygen consumption in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-independent manner. In obese mice, metformin reduced inflammatory features in brown adipose tissue (BAT) such as macrophage infiltration, proinflammatory signaling and gene expression, and restored the response to cold exposure. In conclusion, the impact of metformin on macrophages by suppressing a HIF1α-dependent proinflammatory program is likely responsible for a secondary beneficial effect on insulin-mediated glucose uptake and β-adrenergic responses in brown adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Pescador
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Vera Francisco
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricia Vázquez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva María Esquinas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina González-Páramos
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica. Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERer), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Pilar Valdecantos
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Irma García-Martínez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés A Urrutia
- Research Unit, Hospital de La Princesa, Instituto Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Ruiz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Escalona-Garrido
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marc Foretz
- Université de Paris, Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, F-75014, Paris, France
| | - Benoit Viollet
- Université de Paris, Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, F-75014, Paris, France
| | - Miguel Ángel Fernández-Moreno
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica. Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERer), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alfonso L Calle-Pascual
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Endocrinología y Nutrición, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Jesús Obregón
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Julián Aragonés
- Research Unit, Hospital de La Princesa, Instituto Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERcv), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ángela M Valverde
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERdem), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
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11
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Cheang YZN, Ting HRD, Koh HQV, Alonso S. In vitro and in vivo efficacy of Metformin against dengue. Antiviral Res 2021; 195:105186. [PMID: 34655660 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Dengue is a prevalent mosquito-borne viral infection in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Its potential to progress into severe, life-threatening disease, has pressed the research community to develop safe, effective and affordable antivirals. Metformin (MET), a first-line antidiabetic drug and indirect AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator, has recently emerged as a potential anti-DENV therapeutic candidate, based on some experimental evidence supporting anti-DENV activity in vitro and widely reported anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we examined MET in vitro activity against the four DENV serotypes and in two different mammalian cell lines. MET displayed a poor anti-DENV activity in BHK-21 cells with IC50 in the mM range, which was associated with increased p-AMPKα levels, thereby supporting that MET antiviral activity is mediated through AMPK activation. In contrast, MET exerted a pro-DENV activity in Vero cells that did not correlate with increased AMPK activation, suggesting AMPK-independent effects. Treatment with compound 991, a direct AMPK activator, led to reduced viral titers against all four serotypes and across both mammalian cell lines. In vivo, oral administration of MET did not reduce viremia titers in an asymptomatic mouse model, neither did it improve disease severity and progression in a mouse model of severe dengue. Instead, high dose regimen worsened disease outcome as evidenced by increased mortality, higher viremia and hyper-inflammation. Therefore, while AMPK may represent a potential host target, MET does not seem to hold great promise as a pan-serotype anti-dengue drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Zhi Nicholas Cheang
- Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Heng Rong Donald Ting
- Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hui Qi Vanessa Koh
- Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sylvie Alonso
- Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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12
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Gao S, Ma W, Lin X, Huang S, Yu M. Identification of Key Genes and Underlying Mechanisms in Acute Kawasaki Disease Based on Bioinformatics Analysis. Med Sci Monit 2021; 27:e930547. [PMID: 34290221 PMCID: PMC8314960 DOI: 10.12659/msm.930547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Kawasaki disease (KD) is a systemic vasculitis that predominantly occurs in children, but the pathogenesis of KD remains unclear. Here, we explored key genes and underlying mechanisms potentially involved in KD using bioinformatic analyses. Material/Methods The shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in KD compared to control samples were identified using the microarray data from the Gene Expression Omnibus Series (GSE) 18606, GSE68004, and GSE73461. Analyses of the functional annotation, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, microRNA-target DEGs regulatory network, and immune cell infiltration were performed. The expression of hub genes before and after intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) treatment in KD was further verified using GSE16797. Results A total of 195 shared DEGs (164 upregulated and 31 downregulated genes) were identified between KD and healthy controls. These shared DEGs were mainly enriched in immune and inflammatory responses. Ten upregulated hub genes (ITGAX, SPI1, LILRB2, MMP9, S100A12, C3AR1, RETN, MAPK14, TLR5, MYD88) and the most significant module were identified in the PPI network. There were 309 regulatory relationships detected within 70 predicted microRNAs and 193 target DEGs. The immune cell infiltration analysis showed that monocytes, neutrophils, activated mast cells, and activated natural killer cells had relatively high proportions and were significantly more infiltrated in KD samples. Six hub genes of ITGAX, LILRB2, C3AR1, MAPK14, TLR5, and MYD88 were markedly downregulated after IVIG treatment for KD. Conclusions Our study identified the candidate genes and associated molecules that may be related to the KD process, and provided new insights into potential mechanisms and therapeutic targets for KD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Side Gao
- Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China (mainland)
| | - Wenjian Ma
- Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China (mainland)
| | - Xuze Lin
- Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China (mainland)
| | - Sizhuang Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China (mainland)
| | - Mengyue Yu
- Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China (mainland)
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13
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Rababa'H AM, Alzoubi KH, Khabour OF, Ababneh M. Ameliorative effect of metformin on methotrexate-induced genotoxicity: An in vitro study in human cultured lymphocytes. Biomed Rep 2021; 15:59. [PMID: 34094535 PMCID: PMC8165753 DOI: 10.3892/br.2021.1435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Methotrexate is a folic acid antagonist that has been shown to be genotoxic to normal healthy cells. Metformin is an insulin-sensitizing agent, with multiple potential pharmacodynamic profiles. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the genotoxic effect of methotrexate on DNA and the potential ameliorative effect of metformin on chromosomal damage induced by methotrexate. The present study was performed in vitro, and the frequency of chromosomal aberrations (CAs) and sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in human cultured lymphocytes were measured. Blood samples from five non-smoking healthy men aged 20-35 years were donated and used in the present study. Treatment of cultured blood cells with methotrexate significantly increased the number of cells with CAs (P<0.0001) and the frequency of SCEs (P<0.0001). The chromosomal injury induced by methotrexate was significantly reduced by pretreatment of the samples with metformin (P<0.0001). Importantly, the treatment of the cells with metformin alone did not affect the frequency of SCEs compared with the control group (P>0.05). Additionally, methotrexate and metformin alone, and combined, induced significant decreases in the proliferative index compared with the control group (P<0.05). In conclusion, metformin ameliorated the genotoxicity induced by methotrexate in cultured human lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abeer M Rababa'H
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
| | - Karem H Alzoubi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
| | - Omar F Khabour
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
| | - Mera Ababneh
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
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14
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Feng X, Chen W, Ni X, Little PJ, Xu S, Tang L, Weng J. Metformin, Macrophage Dysfunction and Atherosclerosis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:682853. [PMID: 34163481 PMCID: PMC8215340 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.682853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Metformin is one of the most widely prescribed hypoglycemic drugs and has the potential to treat many diseases. More and more evidence shows that metformin can regulate the function of macrophages in atherosclerosis, including reducing the differentiation of monocytes and inhibiting the inflammation, oxidative stress, polarization, foam cell formation and apoptosis of macrophages. The mechanisms by which metformin regulates the function of macrophages include AMPK, AMPK independent targets, NF-κB, ABCG5/8, Sirt1, FOXO1/FABP4 and HMGB1. On the basis of summarizing these studies, we further discussed the future research directions of metformin: single-cell RNA sequencing, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), epigenetic modification, and metformin-based combination drugs. In short, macrophages play an important role in a variety of diseases, and improving macrophage dysfunction may be an important mechanism for metformin to expand its pleiotropic pharmacological profile. In addition, the combination of metformin with other drugs that improve the function of macrophages (such as SGLT2 inhibitors, statins and IL-1β inhibitors/monoclonal antibodies) may further enhance the pleiotropic therapeutic potential of metformin in conditions such as atherosclerosis, obesity, cancer, dementia and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Feng
- Department of Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital of University of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei, China
| | - Wenxu Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital of University of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei, China
| | - Xiayun Ni
- Department of Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital of University of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei, China
| | - Peter J. Little
- Sunshine Coast Health Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, Birtinya, QLD, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacy Australia Centre of Excellence, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Suowen Xu
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China( USTC), Hefei, China
| | - Liqin Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital of University of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei, China
| | - Jianping Weng
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China( USTC), Hefei, China
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15
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Metformin-Induced MicroRNA-34a-3p Downregulation Alleviates Senescence in Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells by Targeting CAB39 through the AMPK/mTOR Signaling Pathway. Stem Cells Int 2021; 2021:6616240. [PMID: 33505470 PMCID: PMC7806386 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6616240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) are ideal seed cells for the regeneration of dental tissues. However, DPSC senescence restricts its clinical applications. Metformin (Met), a common prescription drug for type 2 diabetes, is thought to influence the aging process. This study is aimed at determining the effects of metformin on DPSC senescence. Young and aging DPSCs were isolated from freshly extracted human teeth. Flow cytometry confirmed that DPSCs expressed characteristic surface antigen markers of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay showed that a concentration of 100 μM metformin produced the highest increase in the proliferation of DPSCs. Metformin inhibited senescence in DPSCs as evidenced by senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining and the expression levels of senescence-associated proteins. Additionally, metformin significantly suppressed microRNA-34a-3p (miR-34a-3p) expression, elevated calcium-binding protein 39 (CAB39) expression, and activated the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. Dual-luciferase reporter assay confirmed that CAB39 is a direct target for miR-34a-3p. Furthermore, transfection of miR-34a-3p mimics promoted the senescence of DPSCs, while metformin treatment or Lenti-CAB39 transfection inhibited cellular senescence. In conclusion, these results indicated that metformin could alleviate the senescence of DPSCs by downregulating miR-34a-3p and upregulating CAB39 through the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. This study elucidates on the inhibitory effect of metformin on DPSC senescence and its potential as a therapeutic target for senescence treatment.
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16
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MicroRNA-34a: the bad guy in age-related vascular diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:7355-7378. [PMID: 34698884 PMCID: PMC8629897 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03979-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The age-related vasculature alteration is the prominent risk factor for vascular diseases (VD), namely, atherosclerosis, abdominal aortic aneurysm, vascular calcification (VC) and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The chronic sterile low-grade inflammation state, alias inflammaging, characterizes elderly people and participates in VD development. MicroRNA34-a (miR-34a) is emerging as an important mediator of inflammaging and VD. miR-34a increases with aging in vessels and induces senescence and the acquisition of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) in vascular smooth muscle (VSMCs) and endothelial (ECs) cells. Similarly, other VD risk factors, including dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia and hypertension, modify miR-34a expression to promote vascular senescence and inflammation. miR-34a upregulation causes endothelial dysfunction by affecting ECs nitric oxide bioavailability, adhesion molecules expression and inflammatory cells recruitment. miR-34a-induced senescence facilitates VSMCs osteoblastic switch and VC development in hyperphosphatemia conditions. Conversely, atherogenic and hypoxic stimuli downregulate miR-34a levels and promote VSMCs proliferation and migration during atherosclerosis and PAH. MiR34a genetic ablation or miR-34a inhibition by anti-miR-34a molecules in different experimental models of VD reduce vascular inflammation, senescence and apoptosis through sirtuin 1 Notch1, and B-cell lymphoma 2 modulation. Notably, pleiotropic drugs, like statins, liraglutide and metformin, affect miR-34a expression. Finally, human studies report that miR-34a levels associate to atherosclerosis and diabetes and correlate with inflammatory factors during aging. Herein, we comprehensively review the current knowledge about miR-34a-dependent molecular and cellular mechanisms activated by VD risk factors and highlight the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of modulating its expression in order to reduce inflammaging and VD burn and extend healthy lifespan.
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Giuliani A, Londin E, Ferracin M, Mensà E, Prattichizzo F, Ramini D, Marcheselli F, Recchioni R, Rippo MR, Bonafè M, Rigoutsos I, Olivieri F, Sabbatinelli J. Long-term exposure of human endothelial cells to metformin modulates miRNAs and isomiRs. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21782. [PMID: 33311640 PMCID: PMC7732983 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78871-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggest that the glucose-lowering drug metformin exerts a valuable anti-senescence role. The ability of metformin to affect the biogenesis of selected microRNAs (miRNAs) was recently suggested. MicroRNA isoforms (isomiRs) are distinct variations of miRNA sequences, harboring addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides at the 5′ and/or 3′ ends of the canonical miRNA sequence. We performed a comprehensive analysis of miRNA and isomiR profile in human endothelial cells undergoing replicative senescence in presence of metformin. Metformin treatment was associated with the differential expression of 27 miRNAs (including miR-100-5p, -125b-5p, -654-3p, -217 and -216a-3p/5p). IsomiR analysis revealed that almost 40% of the total miRNA pool was composed by non-canonical sequences. Metformin significantly affects the relative abundance of 133 isomiRs, including the non-canonical forms of the aforementioned miRNAs. Pathway enrichment analysis suggested that pathways associated with proliferation and nutrient sensing are modulated by metformin-regulated miRNAs and that some of the regulated isomiRs (e.g. the 5′ miR-217 isomiR) are endowed with alternative seed sequences and share less than half of the predicted targets with the canonical form. Our results show that metformin reshapes the senescence-associated miRNA/isomiR patterns of endothelial cells, thus expanding our insight into the cell senescence molecular machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica Giuliani
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, Via Tronto 10/A, 60126, Ancona, Italy
| | - Eric Londin
- Computational Medicine Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Manuela Ferracin
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic, and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Emanuela Mensà
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, Via Tronto 10/A, 60126, Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Deborah Ramini
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, Via Tronto 10/A, 60126, Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Rina Recchioni
- Center of Clinical Pathology and Innovative Therapy, IRCCS INRCA, Ancona, Italy
| | - Maria Rita Rippo
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, Via Tronto 10/A, 60126, Ancona, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Bonafè
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic, and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Isidore Rigoutsos
- Computational Medicine Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Fabiola Olivieri
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, Via Tronto 10/A, 60126, Ancona, Italy. .,Center of Clinical Pathology and Innovative Therapy, IRCCS INRCA, Ancona, Italy.
| | - Jacopo Sabbatinelli
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, Via Tronto 10/A, 60126, Ancona, Italy
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Xiong J, Wang H, Mu F, Liu Z, Bao Y, Sun Y. MiR-125b-5p Inhibitor Might Protect Against Sevoflurane-induced Cognitive Impairments by Targeting LIMK1. Curr Neurovasc Res 2020; 16:382-391. [PMID: 31490755 DOI: 10.2174/1567202616666190906145936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Research has shown that exposure to anesthesia might increase the risks of cognitive impairments and learning difficulties. MiR-125b-5p contributed to anesthesia-induced hippocampal apoptosis. However, the role of miR-125b-5p in sevoflurane-induced cognitive impairments remains unclear. METHODS Firstly, sevoflurane was used to establish a rat model and cognitive impairment was detected by the Morris water maze (MWM) test. The hippocampus was observed by HE staining. The lentivirus-miR-125b-5p antagomiR was transfected into rats to decrease miR-125b-5p. The interaction between miR-125b-5p and LIM domain kinase 1 (LIMK1) was confirmed by the luciferase reporter assay. The mRNA and expression levels of related genes and mRNA were examined by the Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot. RESULTS Sevoflurane induced the cognitive dysfunction presenting with longer latency time and few platform crossings in rats. Moreover, miR-125b-5p was observed to be up-regulated in both sevoflurane-anesthesia rats and sevoflurane-treated SH-SY5Y cells. More importantly, a decrease in miR-125b-5p could prevent sevoflurane-induced hippocampal apoptosis and inflammation in rats. Moreover, LIMK1 was the target gene of miR-125b-5p. Interestingly, si-LIMK1 could restore the sevoflurane-induced cell apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells, which was alleviated by miR-125b-5p inhibitor. Finally, the miR-125b-5p inhibitor shortened the time to find the platform and increased the number of platform crossings compared to sevoflurane-anesthesia rats in the Morris water maze test. At the same time, the expression of LIMK1 was dramatically increased. CONCLUSION Altogether, these findings suggested that miR-125b-5p inhibitor could protect against the sevoflurane-induced cognitive impairments by targeting LIMK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Xiong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sanbo Brain Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing City, 100093, China
| | - Huijun Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing City, 100730, China
| | - Feng Mu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sanbo Brain Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing City, 100093, China
| | - Zhanxue Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sanbo Brain Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing City, 100093, China
| | - Yin Bao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing City, 100730, China
| | - Yongxing Sun
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sanbo Brain Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing City, 100093, China
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19
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Witkowski M, Friebel J, Tabaraie T, Grabitz S, Dörner A, Taghipour L, Jakobs K, Stratmann B, Tschoepe D, Landmesser U, Rauch U. Metformin Is Associated with Reduced Tissue Factor Procoagulant Activity in Patients with Poorly Controlled Diabetes. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2020; 35:809-813. [PMID: 32940892 PMCID: PMC8266708 DOI: 10.1007/s10557-020-07040-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Metformin is the first-line antidiabetic drug and shown to reduce cardiovascular risk independent from its glucose lowering action. Particularly in poorly controlled diabetes, tissue factor (TF) is expressed in the vasculature and accounts for thromboembolic complications. Here, we aimed to assess the effect of metformin on TF activity and markers of vascular inflammation in poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. Methods In a cohort of patients with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes (glycosylated hemoglobin 8.39 ± 0.24%, 68.1 ± 2.6 mmol/mol, n = 46) of whom half of the individuals were treated with metformin and the other half did not receive metformin as part of an anti-diabetic combination therapy, we assessed TF activity and markers of vascular inflammation. In vitro, human monocytic cells (THP-1) were exposed to metformin and TF expression measured in the presence and absence of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide riboside (AICAR) or the AMPK inhibitor compound C. Results In the patients, metformin treatment was associated with lower levels of TF protein (241.5 ± 19 vs. 315.4 ± 25 pg/mL, p = 0.03) and reduced TF activity (408.9 ± 49 vs. 643.8 ± 47 U/mL, p = 0.001) compared with controls. Moreover, the patients on metformin showed lower levels of vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)1 (26.6 ± 1.4 vs. 35.03 ± 3.1 ng/mL, p = 0.014) and higher expression of miR-126-3p/U6sno (11.39 ± 2.8 vs. 4.26 ± 0.9, p = 0.006), a known post-transcriptional down regulator of TF and VCAM1. In vitro, metformin dose-dependently reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced TF expression in THP-1 cells. The AMPK activator AICAR alone lowered TF expression in THP-1, while the AMPK inhibitor compound C abrogated the metformin-dependent reduction in TF expression. Conclusions Our data are the first to report that metformin is associated with reduced plasma TF procoagulant activity possibly explaining—at least in part—the vasculoprotective properties of metformin. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s10557-020-07040-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Witkowski
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian Friebel
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Termeh Tabaraie
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sinah Grabitz
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andrea Dörner
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lena Taghipour
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Jakobs
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Stratmann
- Herz und Diabeteszentrum NRW, Ruhr Universität Bochum, Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
| | - Diethelm Tschoepe
- Herz und Diabeteszentrum NRW, Ruhr Universität Bochum, Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
| | - Ulf Landmesser
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ursula Rauch
- Charité Centrum 11, Department of Cardiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12200, Berlin, Germany.
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Chang Z, Huang R, Fu W, Li J, Ji G, Huang J, Shi W, Yin H, Wang W, Meng T, Huang Z, Wei Q, Qin H. The Construction and Analysis of ceRNA Network and Patterns of Immune Infiltration in Colon Adenocarcinoma Metastasis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:688. [PMID: 32850813 PMCID: PMC7417319 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) is a malignant and lethal tumor in digestive system and distance metastasis lead to poor prognosis. The metastasis-specific ceRNAs (competitive endogenous RNAs) and tumor-infiltrating immune cells might associate with tumor prognosis and distance metastasis. Nonetheless, few studies have concentrated on ceRNAs and Immune cells in COAD. METHODS The gene expression profile and clinical information of COAD were downloaded from TCGA and divided into two groups: primary tumors with or without distance metastasis. We applied comprehensive bioinformatics methods to analyze differential expression genes (DEGs) related to metastasis and establish the ceRNA networks. The Cox analysis and Lasso regression were utilized to screen the pivotal genes and prevent overfitting. Based on them, the prognosis prediction nomograms were established. The cell type identification by estimating relative subsets of RNA transcripts (CIBERSORT) algorithm was then applied to screen significant tumor immune-infiltrating cells associated with COAD metastasis and established another prognosis prediction model. Ultimately, co-expression analysis was applied to explore the relationship between key genes in ceRNA networks and significant immune cells. Multiple databases and preliminary clinical specimen validation were used to test the expressions of key biomarkers at the cellular and tissue levels. RESULTS We explored 1 significantly differentially expressed lncRNA, 1 significantly differentially expressed miRNA, 8 survival-related immune-infiltrating cells, 5 immune cells associated with distance metastasis. Besides, 3 pairs of important biomarkers associated with COAD metastasis were also identified: T cells follicular helper and hsa-miR-125b-5p (R = -0.200, P < 0.001), Macrophages M0 and hsa-miR-125b-5p (R = 0.170, P < 0.001) and Macrophages M0 and FAS (R = -0.370, P < 0.001). Multidimensional validation and preliminary clinical specimen validation also supported the results. CONCLUSION In this research, we found some significant ceRNAs (FAS and hsa-miR-125b-5p) and tumor-infiltrating immune cells (T cells follicular helper and Macrophages M0) might related to distance metastasis and prognosis of COAD. The nomograms could assist scientific and medical researchers in clinical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyan Chang
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Runzhi Huang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Division of Spine, Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital Affiliated to Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Tongji University School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wanting Fu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jiehan Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Guo Ji
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinglei Huang
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Weijun Shi
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huabin Yin
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weifeng Wang
- Department of Central Laboratory, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Tong Meng
- Tongji University Cancer Center, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital of Tongji University, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zongqiang Huang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Qing Wei
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huanlong Qin
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Metformin: Sentinel of the Epigenetic Landscapes That Underlie Cell Fate and Identity. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10050780. [PMID: 32443566 PMCID: PMC7277648 DOI: 10.3390/biom10050780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The biguanide metformin is the first drug to be tested as a gerotherapeutic in the clinical trial TAME (Targeting Aging with Metformin). The current consensus is that metformin exerts indirect pleiotropy on core metabolic hallmarks of aging, such as the insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 and AMP-activated protein kinase/mammalian Target Of Rapamycin signaling pathways, downstream of its primary inhibitory effect on mitochondrial respiratory complex I. Alternatively, but not mutually exclusive, metformin can exert regulatory effects on components of the biologic machinery of aging itself such as chromatin-modifying enzymes. An integrative metabolo-epigenetic outlook supports a new model whereby metformin operates as a guardian of cell identity, capable of retarding cellular aging by preventing the loss of the information-theoretic nature of the epigenome. The ultimate anti-aging mechanism of metformin might involve the global preservation of the epigenome architecture, thereby ensuring cell fate commitment and phenotypic outcomes despite the challenging effects of aging noise. Metformin might therefore inspire the development of new gerotherapeutics capable of preserving the epigenome architecture for cell identity. Such gerotherapeutics should replicate the ability of metformin to halt the erosion of the epigenetic landscape, mitigate the loss of cell fate commitment, delay stochastic/environmental DNA methylation drifts, and alleviate cellular senescence. Yet, it remains a challenge to confirm if regulatory changes in higher-order genomic organizers can connect the capacity of metformin to dynamically regulate the three-dimensional nature of epigenetic landscapes with the 4th dimension, the aging time.
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