1
|
Latimer AE, Sherratt E, Bonnet T, Scheyer TM. Semicircular canal shape diversity among modern lepidosaurs: life habit, size, allometry. BMC Ecol Evol 2023; 23:10. [PMID: 37046214 PMCID: PMC10091843 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-023-02113-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The shape of the semicircular canals of the inner ear of living squamate reptiles has been used to infer phylogenetic relationships, body size, and life habits. Often these inferences are made without controlling for the effects of the other ones. Here we examine the semicircular canals of 94 species of extant limbed lepidosaurs using three-dimensional landmark-based geometric morphometrics, and analyze them in phylogenetic context to evaluate the relative contributions of life habit, size, and phylogeny on canal shape. RESULTS Life habit is not a strong predictor of semicircular canal shape across this broad sample. Instead, phylogeny plays a major role in predicting shape, with strong phylogenetic signal in shape as well as size. Allometry has a limited role in canal shape, but inner ear size and body mass are strongly correlated. CONCLUSIONS Our wide sampling across limbed squamates suggests that semicircular canal shape and size are predominantly a factor of phylogenetic relatedness. Given the small proportion of variance in semicircular canal shape explained by life habit, it is unlikely that unknown life habit could be deduced from semicircular canal shape alone. Overall, semicircular canal size is a good estimator of body length and even better for body mass in limbed squamates. Semiaquatic taxa tend to be larger and heavier than non-aquatic taxa, but once body size and phylogeny are accounted for, they are hard to distinguish from their non-aquatic relatives based on bony labyrinth shape and morphology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E Latimer
- Department of Palaeontology, University of Zurich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, 8006, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Emma Sherratt
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Timothée Bonnet
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200, Australia
| | - Torsten M Scheyer
- Department of Palaeontology, University of Zurich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, 8006, Zurich, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Head Shape Heritability in the Hungarian Meadow Viper Vipera ursinii rakosiensis. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13020322. [PMID: 36670862 PMCID: PMC9854840 DOI: 10.3390/ani13020322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding heritability patterns in functionally relevant traits is a cornerstone for evaluating their evolutionary potential and their role in local adaptation. In this study, we investigated patterns of heritability in the head shape of the Hungarian meadow viper (Vipera ursinii rakosiensis). To this end, we used geometric morphometric data from 12 families composed of 8 mothers, 6 fathers and 221 offspring, bred in captivity at the Hungarian Meadow Viper Conservation Centre (Hungary). We separately evaluated maternal and paternal contributions to the offspring phenotype, in addition to additive genetic effects, all determined using a mixed animal model. Our results indicate a strong genetic and maternal contribution to head shape variations. In contrast, the paternal effects-which are rarely evaluated in wild-ranging species-as well as residual environmental variance, were minimal. Overall, our results indicate a high evolutionary potential for head shape in the Hungarian meadow viper, which suggests a strong contribution of this ecologically important trait in shaping the ability of this endangered species to adapt to changing conditions and/or habitats. Furthermore, our results suggest that maternal phenotypes should be carefully considered when designing captive breeding parental pairs for reinforcing the adaptive capacity of threatened populations, whereas the paternal phenotypes seem less relevant.
Collapse
|
3
|
Ruiz-Monachesi MR, Abdala CS, Cruz FB. Allometry and morphological integration shape the chemical detection system in Liolaemus lizards (Squamata, Iguania). ZOOL ANZ 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcz.2022.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
4
|
Pavón-Vázquez CJ, Brennan IG, Skeels A, Keogh JS. Competition and geography underlie speciation and morphological evolution in Indo-Australasian monitor lizards. Evolution 2022; 76:476-495. [PMID: 34816437 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
How biotic and abiotic factors act together to shape biological diversity is a major question in evolutionary biology. The recent availability of large datasets and development of new methodological approaches provide new tools to evaluate the predicted effects of ecological interactions and geography on lineage diversification and phenotypic evolution. Here, we use a near complete phylogenomic-scale phylogeny and a comprehensive morphological dataset comprising more than a thousand specimens to assess the role of biotic and abiotic processes in the diversification of monitor lizards (Varanidae). This charismatic group of lizards shows striking variation in species richness among its clades and multiple instances of endemic radiation in Indo-Australasia (i.e., the Indo-Australian Archipelago and Australia), one of Earth's most biogeographically complex regions. We found heterogeneity in diversification dynamics across the family. Idiosyncratic biotic and geographic conditions appear to have driven diversification and morphological evolution in three endemic Indo-Australasian radiations. Furthermore, incumbency effects partially explain patterns in the biotic exchange between Australia and New Guinea. Our results offer insight into the dynamic history of Indo-Australasia, the evolutionary significance of competition, and the long-term consequences of incumbency effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos J Pavón-Vázquez
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,Current Address: Department of Biological Sciences, New York City College of Technology, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York, 11201
| | - Ian G Brennan
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Alexander Skeels
- Landscape Ecology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, CH-8092, Switzerland.,Swiss Federal Research Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), Birmensdorf, CH-8903, Switzerland
| | - J Scott Keogh
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tan WC, Measey J, Vanhooydonck B, Herrel A. The relationship between bite force, morphology, and diet in southern African agamids. BMC Ecol Evol 2021; 21:126. [PMID: 34154535 PMCID: PMC8215774 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-021-01859-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Many animals display morphological and behavioural adaptations to the habitats in which they live and the resources they exploit. Bite force is an important whole-organism performance trait that allows an increase in dietary breadth, the inclusion of novel prey in the diet, territory and predatory defence, and is important during mating in many lizards.
Methods Here, we study six species of southern African agamid lizards from three habitat types (ground-dwelling, rock-dwelling, and arboreal) to investigate whether habitat use constrains head morphology and bite performance. We further tested whether bite force and head morphology evolve as adaptations to diet by analysing a subset of these species for which diet data were available.
Results Overall, both jaw length and its out-lever are excellent predictors of bite performance across all six species. Rock-dwelling species have a flatter head relative to their size than other species, possibly as an adaptation for crevice use. However, even when correcting for jaw length and jaw out-lever length, rock-dwelling species bite harder than ground-dwelling species. Diet analyses demonstrate that body and head size are not directly related to diet, although greater in-levers for jaw closing (positively related to bite force) are associated to an increase of hard prey in the diet. Ground-dwelling species consume more ants than other species. Conclusions Our results illustrate the role of head morphology in driving bite force and demonstrate how habitat use impacts head morphology but not bite force in these agamids. Although diet is associated with variation in head morphology it is only partially responsible for the observed differences in morphology and performance. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-021-01859-w.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- W C Tan
- Herpetology Section, Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Adenauerallee 160, 53113, Bonn, Germany. .,Institut für Zoologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, Bonn, Germany. .,Laboratoire EBI Ecologie and Biologie des Interactions, UMR CNRS 7267, Université de Poitiers, UFR Sciences Fondamentales et Appliquées, Poitiers, France. .,Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa. .,Département Adaptations du Vivant, UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N., Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - J Measey
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - B Vanhooydonck
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - A Herrel
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerpen, Belgium.,Département Adaptations du Vivant, UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N., Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Stepanova N, Bauer AM. Phylogenetic history influences convergence for a specialized ecology: comparative skull morphology of African burrowing skinks (Squamata; Scincidae). BMC Ecol Evol 2021; 21:86. [PMID: 33993867 PMCID: PMC8127277 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-021-01821-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Skulls serve many functions and as a result, are subject to many different evolutionary pressures. In squamates, many fossorial species occupy a unique region of skull morphospace, showing convergence across families, due to modifications related to head-first burrowing. As different substrates have variable physical properties, particular skull shapes may offer selective advantages in certain substrates. Despite this, studies of variation within burrowers have been limited and are typically focused on a single origin of fossoriality. We focused on seven skink genera (Acontias, Typhlosaurus, Scelotes, Sepsina, Feylinia, Typhlacontias, and Mochlus; 39 sp.) from southern Africa, encompassing at least three independent evolutions of semi-fossoriality/fossoriality. We used microCT scans and geometric morphometrics to test how cranial and mandibular shape were influenced by phylogenetic history, size, and ecology. We also qualitatively described the skulls of four species to look at variation across phylogenetic and functional levels, and assess the degree of convergence. Results We found a strong effect of phylogenetic history on cranial and mandibular shape, with size and substrate playing secondary roles. There was a clear gradient in morphospace from less specialized to more specialized burrowers and burrowers in sand were significantly different from those in other substrates. We also created an anatomical atlas for four species with each element described in isolation. Every bone showed some variation in shape and relative scaling of features, with the skull roofing bones, septomaxilla, vomer, and palatine showing the most variation. We showed how broad-scale convergence in traits related to fossoriality can be the result of different anatomical changes. Conclusions Our study used geometric morphometrics and comparative anatomy to examine how skull morphology changes for a highly specialized and demanding lifestyle. Although there was broad convergence in both shape and qualitative traits, phylogenetic history played a large role and much of this convergence was produced by different anatomical changes, implying different developmental pathways or lineage-specific constraints. Even within a single family, adaptation for a specialized ecology does not follow a singular deterministic path. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-021-01821-w.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Stepanova
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stewardship, Villanova University, Villanova, PA, USA. .,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Aaron M Bauer
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stewardship, Villanova University, Villanova, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Christodoulou MD, Culham A. Apples before the fall: Does shape stability coincide with maturity? QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 2:e5. [PMID: 37077215 PMCID: PMC10095885 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2021.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Fruit shape is the result of the interaction between genetic, epigenetic, environmental factors and stochastic processes. As a core biological descriptor both for taxonomy and horticulture, the point at which shape stability is reached becomes paramount in apple cultivar identification, and authentication in commerce. Twelve apple cultivars were sampled at regular intervals from anthesis to harvest over two growing seasons. Linear and geometric morphometrics were analysed to establish if and when shape stabilised and whether fruit asymmetry influenced this. Shape stability was detected in seven cultivars, four asymmetric and three symmetric. The remaining five did not stabilise. Shape stability, as defined here, is cultivar-dependent, and when it occurs, it is late in the growing season. Geometric morphometrics detected stability more readily than linear, especially in symmetric cultivars. Key shape features are important in apple marketing, giving the distinctness and apparent uniformity between cultivars expected at point of sale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria D. Christodoulou
- Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- University of Reading Herbarium, School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
- Authors for correspondence: M. D. Christodoulou, E-mail: ; and Alastair Culham, E-mail:
| | - Alastair Culham
- University of Reading Herbarium, School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
- Authors for correspondence: M. D. Christodoulou, E-mail: ; and Alastair Culham, E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Mosasaurs were large, globally distributed aquatic lizards that lived during the Late Cretaceous. Despite numerous specimens of varying maturity, a detailed growth series has not been proposed for any mosasaur taxon. Two taxa-Tylosaurus proriger and T. kansasensis/nepaeolicus-have robust fossil records with specimens spanning a wide range of sizes and are thus ideal for studying mosasaur ontogeny. Tylosaurus is a genus of particularly large mosasaurs with long, edentulous anterior extensions of the premaxilla and dentary that lived in Europe and North America during the Late Cretaceous. An analysis of growth in Tylosaurus provides an opportunity to test hypotheses of the synonymy of T. kansasensis with T. nepaeolicus, sexual dimorphism, anagenesis, and heterochrony. Fifty-nine hypothetical growth characters were identified, including size-dependent, size-independent, and phylogenetic characters, and quantitative cladistic analysis was used to recover growth series for the two taxa. The results supported the synonymy of T. kansasensis with T. nepaeolicus and that T. kansasensis represent juveniles of T. nepaeolicus. A Spearman rank-order correlation test resulted in a significant correlation between two measures of size (total skull length and quadrate height) and maturity. Eleven growth changes were shared across both species, neither of the ontogram topologies showed evidence of skeletal sexual dimorphism, and a previous hypothesis of paedomorphy in T. proriger was not rejected. Finally, a novel hypothesis of anagenesis in Western Interior Seaway Tylosaurus species, driven by peramorphy, is proposed here.
Collapse
|
9
|
DeLorenzo L, Vander Linden A, Bergmann PJ, Wagner GP, Siler CD, Irschick DJ. Using 3D-digital photogrammetry to examine scaling of the body axis in burrowing skinks. J Morphol 2020; 281:1382-1390. [PMID: 32815588 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) modeling techniques have been increasingly utilized across disciplines for the visualization and analysis of complex structures. We employ 3D-digital photogrammetry for understanding the scaling of the body axis of 12 species of scincid lizards in the genus Brachymeles. These skinks represent a diverse radiation which shows tremendous variation in body size and degree of axial elongation. Because of the complex nature of the body axis, 3D-methods are important for understanding how the body axis evolves. 3D-digital photogrammetry presents a flexible, inexpensive, and portable system for the reconstruction of biological forms. As body size increased among species, the cross-sectional area and circumference of the head and other portions of the body axis increased isometrically, which indicates that species of differing sizes possess proportionally similar head and body shapes. These results suggest that there are no substantial head and body shape changes with body size among the sampled species, but further comparative studies with larger sample sizes and functional studies of size and morphology effects on burrowing or above-ground locomotion are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leah DeLorenzo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Abby Vander Linden
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Philip J Bergmann
- Department of Biology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gunter P Wagner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Cameron D Siler
- Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History and Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Duncan J Irschick
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
López‐Romero FA, Klimpfinger C, Tanaka S, Kriwet J. Growth trajectories of prenatal embryos of the deep-sea shark Chlamydoselachus anguineus (Chondrichthyes). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2020; 97:212-224. [PMID: 32307702 PMCID: PMC7497067 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydoselachus anguineus, Garman 1884, commonly called the frilled shark, is a deep-sea shark species occurring up to depths of 1300 m. It is assumed to represent an ancient morphotype of sharks (e.g., terminal mouth opening, more than five gill slits) and thus is often considered to represent plesiomorphic traits for sharks. Therefore, its early ontogenetic developmental traits are important for understanding the evolution of its particular phenotype. Here, we established six stages for prenatal embryos and used linear measurements and geometric morphometrics to analyse changes in shape and size as well as their timing during different embryonic stages. Our results show a change in head shape and a relocation of the mouth opening at a late stage of development. We also detected a negative allometric growth of the head and especially the eye compared to the rest of the body and a sexual dimorphism in total body length, which differs from the known data for adults. A multivariate analysis of covariance shows a significant interaction of shape related to the logarithm of centroid size and developmental stage. Geometric morphometrics results indicate that the head shape changes as a covariate of body size while not accounting for differences between sexes. The growth pattern of stages 32 and 33 indicates a shift in head shape, thus highlighting the moment in development when the jaws start to elongate anteriorly to finally achieve the adult condition of terminal mouth opening rather than retaining the early embryonic subterminal position as is typical for sharks. Thus, the antero-terminal mouth opening of the frilled shark has to be considered a derived feature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sho Tanaka
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Faculty of Marine Science and TechnologyTokai UniversityShizuoka Shimizu‐kuJapan
| | - Jürgen Kriwet
- Department of PaleontologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tarkhnishvili D, Gabelaia M, Adriaens D. Phenotypic divergence, convergence and evolution of Caucasian rock lizards (Darevskia). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPhenotypic evolution can cause either divergent or convergent phenotypic patterns. Even adaptation to the same environment may result in divergence of some elements of phenotype, whereas for other morphological traits it could cause phenotypic convergence. We hypothesize that at least some phenotypic characters diverge monotonically, hence they evolve irreversibly even in very closely related species, and this happens in spite of multiple convergent adaptive patterns. We studied the evolution of phenotype in 13 closely related Caucasian rock lizards (Darevskia), whose phylogenetic relationships are well known. We used head shape and the outlines of three important scales, using geometric morphometrics. We studied the association of the overall head shape, individual principal components of head shape and scale outlines with four predictors: phylogeny, habitat, sex and size. The overall head shape was not correlated with any of these predictors, whereas some principal components were correlated with habitat or phylogeny. Habitat type explained the highest fraction of variation in head shape and anal scale area. The relatedness inferred from the components of phenotype not correlated with habitat was congruent with the phylogenetic tree inferred from molecular data. Although adaptation to local environments may obscure the phylogenetic signal present in phenotype, there are components of phenotype whose evolution is irreversible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Tarkhnishvili
- Ilia State University, Institute of Ecology, School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Kakutsa Cholokashvili Ave 3/5, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Mariam Gabelaia
- Ilia State University, Institute of Ecology, School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Kakutsa Cholokashvili Ave 3/5, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Dominique Adriaens
- Ghent University, Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Gent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Stepanova N, Womack MC. Anuran limbs reflect microhabitat and distal, later‐developing bones are more evolutionarily labile*. Evolution 2020; 74:2005-2019. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Stepanova
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology University of California at Berkeley 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building Berkeley California 94720
- Present Address: Department of Biology Villanova University 800 Lancaster Avenue Villanova Pennsylvania 19085
| | - Molly C. Womack
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution 1000 Constitution Avenue NW Washington DC 20560
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Esquivel‐Ramírez A, Hornung‐Leoni CT, Manríquez‐Morán NL. Morphological variation and sexual dimorphism in the
Aspidoscelis gularis
complex (Squamata: Teiidae) from Mexico. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anahí Esquivel‐Ramírez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo Mineral de la Reforma Hidalgo México
| | - Claudia T. Hornung‐Leoni
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo Mineral de la Reforma Hidalgo México
| | - Norma L. Manríquez‐Morán
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo Mineral de la Reforma Hidalgo México
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Palci A, Caldwell MW, Hutchinson MN, Konishi T, Lee MSY. The morphological diversity of the quadrate bone in squamate reptiles as revealed by high-resolution computed tomography and geometric morphometrics. J Anat 2019; 236:210-227. [PMID: 31667837 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the morphological diversity of the quadrate bone in squamate reptiles (i.e. lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians). The quadrate is the principal splanchnocranial element involved in suspending the lower jaw from the skull, and its shape is of particular interest because it is potentially affected by several factors, such as phylogenetic history, allometry, ecology, skull kinesis and hearing capabilities (e.g. presence or absence of a tympanic ear). Due to its complexity, the quadrate bone is also considered one of the most diagnostic elements in fragmentary fossil taxa. We describe quadrates from 38 species spread across all major squamate clades, using qualitative and quantitative (e.g. geometric morphometrics) methods. We test for possible correlations between shape variation and factors such as phylogeny, size, ecology and presence/absence of a tympanum. Our results show that the shape of the quadrate is highly evolutionarily plastic, with very little of the diversity explained by phylogenetic history. Size variation (allometric scaling) is similarly unable to explain much shape diversity in the squamate quadrate. Ecology (terrestrial/fossorial/aquatic) and presence of a tympanic ear are more significant, but together explain only about 20% of the diversity observed. Other unexplored and more analytically complex factors, such as skull biomechanics, likely play additional major roles in shaping the quadrates of lizards and snakes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Palci
- South Australian Museum, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Michael W Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Mark N Hutchinson
- South Australian Museum, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Takuya Konishi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Michael S Y Lee
- South Australian Museum, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Duport-Bru AS, Ponssa ML, Vera Candioti F. Postmetamorphic ontogenetic allometry and the evolution of skull shape in Nest-building frogs Leptodactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae). Evol Dev 2019; 21:265-277. [PMID: 31356726 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Allometry constitutes an important source of morphological variation. However, its influence in head development in anurans has been poorly explored. By using geometric morphometrics followed by statistical and comparative methods we analyzed patterns of allometric change during cranial postmetamorphic ontogeny in species of Nest-building frogs Leptodactylus (Leptodactylidae). We found that the anuran skull is not a static structure, and allometry plays an important role in defining its shape in this group. Similar to other groups with biphasic life-cycle, and following a general trend in vertebrates, ontogenetic changes mostly involve rearrangement in rostral, otoccipital, and suspensorium regions. Ontogenetic transformations are paralleled by shape changes associated with evolutionary change in size, such that the skulls of species of different intrageneric groups are scaled to each other, and small and large species show patterns of paedomorphic/peramorphic features, respectively. Allometric trajectories producing those phenotypes are highly evolvable though, with shape change direction and magnitude varying widely among clades, and irrespective of changes in absolute body size. These results reinforce the importance of large-scale comparisons of growth patterns to understand the plasticity, evolution, and polarity of morphological changes in different clades.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana S Duport-Bru
- Unidad Ejecutora Lillo, (CONICET-Fundación Miguel Lillo), Tucumán, Argentina
| | - María L Ponssa
- Unidad Ejecutora Lillo, (CONICET-Fundación Miguel Lillo), Tucumán, Argentina
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Friedman ST, Martinez CM, Price SA, Wainwright PC. The influence of size on body shape diversification across Indo‐Pacific shore fishes*. Evolution 2019; 73:1873-1884. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah T. Friedman
- Department of Evolution and Ecology University of California Davis California 95616
| | | | - Samantha A. Price
- Department of Biological Sciences Clemson University Clemson South Carolina 29634
| | - Peter C. Wainwright
- Department of Evolution and Ecology University of California Davis California 95616
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bels V, Paindavoine AS, Zghikh LN, Paulet E, Pallandre JP, Montuelle SJ. Feeding in Lizards: Form–Function and Complex Multifunctional System. FEEDING IN VERTEBRATES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-13739-7_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
18
|
Paluh DJ, Bauer AM. Phylogenetic history, allometry and disparate functional pressures influence the morphological diversification of the gekkotan quadrate, a keystone cranial element. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Paluh
- Department of Biology, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Aaron M Bauer
- Department of Biology, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
D'Amore DC, Clulow S, Doody JS, Rhind D, McHenry CR. Claw morphometrics in monitor lizards: Variable substrate and habitat use correlate to shape diversity within a predator guild. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:6766-6778. [PMID: 30038773 PMCID: PMC6053582 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies investigate morphology in the context of habitat, and lizards have received particular attention. Substrate usage is often reflected in the morphology of characters associated with locomotion, and, as a result, claws have become well-studied ecomorphological traits linking the two. The Kimberley predator guild of Western Australia consists of 10 sympatric varanid species. The purpose of this study was to quantify claw size and shape in the guild using geometric morphometrics, and determine whether these features correlated with substrate use and habitat. Each species was assigned a Habitat/substrate group based on the substrate their claws interact with in their respective habitat. Claw morphometrics were derived for both wild caught and preserved specimens from museum collections, using a 2D semilandmark analysis. Claw shape significantly separated based on Habitat/substrate group. Varanus gouldii and Varanus panoptes claws were associated with sprinting and extensive digging. Varanus mertensi claws were for shallow excavation. The remaining species' claws reflected specialization for some form of climbing, and differed based on substrate compliance. Varanus glauerti was best adapted for climbing rough sandstone, whereas Varanus scalaris and Varanus tristis had claws ideal for puncturing wood. Phylogenetic signal also significantly influenced claw shape, with Habitat/substrate group limited to certain clades. Positive size allometry allowed for claws to cope with mass increases, and shape allometry reflected a potential size limit on climbing. Claw morphology may facilitate niche separation within this trophic guild, especially when considered with body size. As these varanids are generalist predators, morphological traits associated with locomotion may be more reliable candidates for detecting niche partitioning than those associated directly with diet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Simon Clulow
- School of Environmental and Life SciencesUniversity of NewcastleCallaghanNSWAustralia
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - J. Sean Doody
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of South Florida– St. PetersburgSt. PetersburgFlorida
| | - David Rhind
- School of Biological SciencesMonash UniversityClaytonVic.Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental BiologyMonash UniversityClaytonVic.Australia
| | - Colin R. McHenry
- School of Environmental and Life SciencesUniversity of NewcastleCallaghanNSWAustralia
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental BiologyMonash UniversityClaytonVic.Australia
- School of EngineeringUniversity of NewcastleCallaghanNSWAustralia
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Tokita M, Yano W, James HF, Abzhanov A. Cranial shape evolution in adaptive radiations of birds: comparative morphometrics of Darwin's finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372:rstb.2015.0481. [PMID: 27994122 PMCID: PMC5182413 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptive radiation is the rapid evolution of morphologically and ecologically diverse species from a single ancestor. The two classic examples of adaptive radiation are Darwin's finches and the Hawaiian honeycreepers, which evolved remarkable levels of adaptive cranial morphological variation. To gain new insights into the nature of their diversification, we performed comparative three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses based on X-ray microcomputed tomography (µCT) scanning of dried cranial skeletons. We show that cranial shapes in both Hawaiian honeycreepers and Coerebinae (Darwin's finches and their close relatives) are much more diverse than in their respective outgroups, but Hawaiian honeycreepers as a group display the highest diversity and disparity of all other bird groups studied. We also report a significant contribution of allometry to skull shape variation, and distinct patterns of evolutionary change in skull morphology in the two lineages of songbirds that underwent adaptive radiation on oceanic islands. These findings help to better understand the nature of adaptive radiations in general and provide a foundation for future investigations on the developmental and molecular mechanisms underlying diversification of these morphologically distinguished groups of birds. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masayoshi Tokita
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Wataru Yano
- Department of Oral Anatomy, Asahi University School of Dentistry, 1851 Hozumi, Mizuho, Gifu 501-0296, Japan
| | - Helen F James
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, MRC 116, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
| | - Arhat Abzhanov
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Malone CL, Reynoso VH, Buckley L. Never judge an iguana by its spines: Systematics of the Yucatan spiny tailed iguana, Ctenosaura defensor (Cope, 1866). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2017; 115:27-39. [PMID: 28716742 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2017.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Spiny tailed iguanas are highly diverse clade of lizards in Mesoamerica, ranging from northern Mexico through Panama. Utilizing 2 regions of mitochondrial DNA (1948bp) and 4 nuclear loci (2232bp) we explored the relationships between these species and the phylogeographic history of the major clades. We discovered that the lineage endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula renders the genus Ctenosaura paraphyletic. To resolve this non-monophyly, we resurrect the taxon Cachryx Cope, 1866, and provide a new diagnosis for the genus. We also find that small body-size and highly spinose tails in the species previously referred to the subgenus Enyaliosaurus, have evolved independently 3 times. Cachryx were recovered as sister to the lineage of iguanines endemic to the Galapagos Islands, and we discuss biogeographic scenarios to explain this relationship as well as those among the primary clades of Ctenosaura in Mesoamerica.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine L Malone
- Department of Biology, Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058, United States.
| | - Víctor Hugo Reynoso
- Departamento de Zoología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México C.P. 04510, Mexico.
| | - Larry Buckley
- Thomas H. Gosnell School of Science and Math, Rochester Institute of Technology, 85 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Hipsley CA, Müller J. Developmental dynamics of ecomorphological convergence in a transcontinental lizard radiation. Evolution 2017; 71:936-948. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christy A. Hipsley
- School of BioSciences University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
- Museum Victoria GPO Box 666 Melbourne VIC 3001 Australia
- Museum für Naturkunde Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science Invalidenstr. 43 10115 Berlin Germany
| | - Johannes Müller
- Museum für Naturkunde Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science Invalidenstr. 43 10115 Berlin Germany
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Openshaw GH, D'Amore DC, Vidal-García M, Keogh JS. Combining geometric morphometric analyses of multiple 2D observation views improves interpretation of evolutionary allometry and shape diversification in monitor lizard (Varanus) crania. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle H. Openshaw
- Division of Evolution; Ecology and Genetics; Research School of Biology; The Australian National University; Canberra ACT Australia
| | | | - Marta Vidal-García
- Division of Evolution; Ecology and Genetics; Research School of Biology; The Australian National University; Canberra ACT Australia
| | - J. Scott Keogh
- Division of Evolution; Ecology and Genetics; Research School of Biology; The Australian National University; Canberra ACT Australia
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Tavares WC, Pessôa LM, Seuánez HN. Phylogenetic and size constrains on cranial ontogenetic allometry of spiny rats (Echimyidae, Rodentia). J Evol Biol 2016; 29:1752-65. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W. C. Tavares
- Departamento de Zoologia; CCS; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
- Programa de Genética; Instituto Nacional de Câncer; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
- Departamento de Genética; CCS; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - L. M. Pessôa
- Departamento de Zoologia; CCS; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - H. N. Seuánez
- Programa de Genética; Instituto Nacional de Câncer; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
- Departamento de Genética; CCS; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
Allometry refers to the size-related changes of morphological traits and remains an essential concept for the study of evolution and development. This review is the first systematic comparison of allometric methods in the context of geometric morphometrics that considers the structure of morphological spaces and their implications for characterizing allometry and performing size correction. The distinction of two main schools of thought is useful for understanding the differences and relationships between alternative methods for studying allometry. The Gould-Mosimann school defines allometry as the covariation of shape with size. This concept of allometry is implemented in geometric morphometrics through the multivariate regression of shape variables on a measure of size. In the Huxley-Jolicoeur school, allometry is the covariation among morphological features that all contain size information. In this framework, allometric trajectories are characterized by the first principal component, which is a line of best fit to the data points. In geometric morphometrics, this concept is implemented in analyses using either Procrustes form space or conformation space (the latter also known as size-and-shape space). Whereas these spaces differ substantially in their global structure, there are also close connections in their localized geometry. For the model of small isotropic variation of landmark positions, they are equivalent up to scaling. The methods differ in their emphasis and thus provide investigators with flexible tools to address specific questions concerning evolution and development, but all frameworks are logically compatible with each other and therefore unlikely to yield contradictory results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Peter Klingenberg
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Size, shape, and form: concepts of allometry in geometric morphometrics. Dev Genes Evol 2016; 226:113-37. [PMID: 27038023 PMCID: PMC4896994 DOI: 10.1007/s00427-016-0539-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 447] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Allometry refers to the size-related changes of morphological traits and remains an essential concept for the study of evolution and development. This review is the first systematic comparison of allometric methods in the context of geometric morphometrics that considers the structure of morphological spaces and their implications for characterizing allometry and performing size correction. The distinction of two main schools of thought is useful for understanding the differences and relationships between alternative methods for studying allometry. The Gould–Mosimann school defines allometry as the covariation of shape with size. This concept of allometry is implemented in geometric morphometrics through the multivariate regression of shape variables on a measure of size. In the Huxley–Jolicoeur school, allometry is the covariation among morphological features that all contain size information. In this framework, allometric trajectories are characterized by the first principal component, which is a line of best fit to the data points. In geometric morphometrics, this concept is implemented in analyses using either Procrustes form space or conformation space (the latter also known as size-and-shape space). Whereas these spaces differ substantially in their global structure, there are also close connections in their localized geometry. For the model of small isotropic variation of landmark positions, they are equivalent up to scaling. The methods differ in their emphasis and thus provide investigators with flexible tools to address specific questions concerning evolution and development, but all frameworks are logically compatible with each other and therefore unlikely to yield contradictory results.
Collapse
|
27
|
McCord CL, Westneat MW. Evolutionary patterns of shape and functional diversification in the skull and jaw musculature of triggerfishes (Teleostei: Balistidae). J Morphol 2016; 277:737-52. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charlene L. McCord
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy; University of Chicago; Chicago, Illinois 60637
- Field Museum of Natural History, Division of Fishes; Chicago Illlinois 60605
| | - Mark W. Westneat
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy; University of Chicago; Chicago, Illinois 60637
- Field Museum of Natural History, Division of Fishes; Chicago Illlinois 60605
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
McCurry MR, Mahony M, Clausen PD, Quayle MR, Walmsley CW, Jessop TS, Wroe S, Richards H, McHenry CR. The relationship between cranial structure, biomechanical performance and ecological diversity in varanoid lizards. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130625. [PMID: 26106889 PMCID: PMC4479569 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Skull structure is intimately associated with feeding ability in vertebrates, both in terms of specific performance measures and general ecological characteristics. This study quantitatively assessed variation in the shape of the cranium and mandible in varanoid lizards, and its relationship to structural performance (von Mises strain) and interspecific differences in feeding ecology. Geometric morphometric and linear morphometric analyses were used to evaluate morphological differences, and finite element analysis was used to quantify variation in structural performance (strain during simulated biting, shaking and pulling). This data was then integrated with ecological classes compiled from relevant scientific literature on each species in order to establish structure-function relationships. Finite element modelling results showed that variation in cranial morphology resulted in large differences in the magnitudes and locations of strain in biting, shaking and pulling load cases. Gracile species such as Varanus salvadorii displayed high strain levels during shaking, especially in the areas between the orbits. All models exhibit less strain during pull back loading compared to shake loading, even though a larger force was applied (pull =30N, shake = 20N). Relationships were identified between the morphology, performance, and ecology. Species that did not feed on hard prey clustered in the gracile region of cranial morphospace and exhibited significantly higher levels of strain during biting (P = 0.0106). Species that fed on large prey clustered in the elongate area of mandible morphospace. This relationship differs from those that have been identified in other taxonomic groups such as crocodiles and mammals. This difference may be due to a combination of the open 'space-frame' structure of the varanoid lizard skull, and the 'pull back' behaviour that some species use for processing large prey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. McCurry
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Environmental and Life Science, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
- Geosciences, Museum Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michael Mahony
- School of Environmental and Life Science, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
| | | | - Michelle R. Quayle
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Tim S. Jessop
- Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stephen Wroe
- School of Engineering, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
- The Function, Evolution & Anatomy Research Lab, Zoology Division, School of Environmental and Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, Australia
| | - Heather Richards
- School of Engineering, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Colin R. McHenry
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Engineering, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
| |
Collapse
|